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THEORY, PARADIGM AND MODEL (II):Empirical problems, Conceptual problems

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Theories of Communication ­ MCM 511
VU
LESSON 03
THEORY, PARADIGM AND MODEL (II)
Theory is more then a cataloging of the social world: it is an attempt to provide an abstract
understanding or explanation of the social world. Theories are a set of logically interrelated
propositions, presented in a systematic way which describe and explain social phenomena. They are
logically constructed statements that summarize and organize knowledge in a particular area and are
open to testing, reformulation modification and revision.
Functions of Theories
Bernard Cohen in 1994 drawing from the work of Larry Lauden in 1982 proposes that the central
function of theory is to solve problems. Lauden notes that:
"The first and essential acid test for any theory is whether it provides acceptable answers to interesting
questions."
Theories can be used to address a number of type's problems. According to Lauden it can begin with
three types of problems:
·
Empirical problems
·
Conceptual problems
·
Practical problems
Empirical problems
An empirical problem is "any thing about the world which strikes us as odd or otherwise in need of
explanation".
Conceptual problems
Conceptual problem exists when a particular theory exhibits inconsistencies that need to be clarified
Practical problems
The utility in solving practical problems has historically played major role in both assessing and
promoting theory construction. Within the field of communication, the role of theory in dealing with
practical or applied problems is particularly important. Communication scholars often confront applied
issues such as how to improve the provisions of health care how to enhance the effectiveness of problem
solving organizational groups.
Assessing the quality of theory
So in assessing the quality of theory three related questions should be answered:
1. Does the theory solve the problem, regardless of whether that problem is empirical conceptual or
practical?
2. Does the solution compare favorably with alternative solutions?
3. Is the solution progressive in that it represents an improvement over its predecessor and opens up new
avenues for solving new problems?
Models in communication research
What are models?
Models are a theoretical and simplified representation of the real world. A model is not an explanatory
device by itself, but it helps to formulate theory. It suggests relationships, and it is often confused with
theory because the relationship between a model and a theory is so close.
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Theories of Communication ­ MCM 511
VU
Definitions
"A model is a consciously simplified description in graphic form of a piece of reality. A model seeks to
show the main elements of any structure or process and the relationships between these elements".
(McQuail).
Deutsch in 1952 pointed out that:
1. Model is a structure of symbols and operating rules which is supposed to match a set of
relevant points in an existing structure or process.
2. Models are indispensable for understanding the more complex processes.
3. This is a form of selection and abstraction.
So a successful pictorial model offers three major advantages:
1. They organize concepts
2. They explain processes and
3. They predict outcomes
They organize concepts
Models organize concepts by ordering and relating systems to each other and by providing us with
images of wholes that we might not otherwise perceive.
A model gives a general picture of a range of different particular circumstances.
They explain processes
Models explain processes by providing in simplified way information which would otherwise be
complicated or ambiguous. This gives a model a heuristic function, since it can guide the student or
researcher to key points of a process or system
They predict outcomes or the course of events
Models can at least be a basis for assigning probabilities to various alternative outcomes, and hence for
formulating hypotheses in research.
KINDS OF MODELS
Structural model
Functional models
Structural model
Some models claim only to describe the structure of a phenomenon.
In this sense, a diagram of the components of a radio set or diagram of a digestive system etc, could be
described as "structural'.
Functional models
Functional models, describe systems in terms of energy, forces and their direction, the relations between
parts and the influence of one part on another. The communication models fall into this category, simply
all communication is in some degree dynamic and involves some elements of process or change
Before we study the communication models lets first look into the most general terms what
communication implies. It implies
·
Sender (encoder)
·
A channel
·
A message
·
A receiver (decoder)
·
A receiver between sender and receiver
·
An effect
·
A context in which communication occurs and
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Theories of Communication ­ MCM 511
VU
·
A range of things to which messages refer
·
Feedback ­ any process by which the communicator obtains information about whether
and how the intended receiver has indeed received the message
Three different ways of viewing communication processes
1. Linear model
2. Interactive model
3. Transactional
LINEAR MODELS
Linear models are based on the principles of stimulus-response psychology, in which a receiver is
affected (response) by a message (stimulus) that emanates from a communication source. These models
depict the communication process as a series of progressive, linear steps in the transmission of ideas
from one person to another.
Lasswell formula
Who says (communicator)
What to (message)
In which channel (channel)
To whom (receiver)
With what effect (effect)
Lasswell formula corresponding with communication research
Who says (control studies)
What to (content analysis)
In which channel (media analysis)
To whom (audience analysis)
With what effect (effect analysis)
Boaddock's extension of the Lasswell formula
Who Says
What to
In which channel
To whom
Under what circumstances?
For what purpose?
With what effect)
Shannon-Weaver model
One of the first linear models of communication, known as the Shannon-Weaver model, (developed in
1940's) described the process of telecommunication.
They developed a model that depicts a message emanating from an information source, which becomes
a signal after passing through a transmitter, depending upon the amount of noise or interference present,
the signal passes through to a receiver, where it is decoded as a message.
Westley - MacLean model
This model (originated in 1950s) differs from the Shannon-Weaver model in that they include
mechanism for FEEDBACK or return flow of information from a receiver to the original source, and
gate keeping, a mechanism (usually a person) that has the power to control information and even
prevent it from reaching a destination .
The gatekeeper was thought to be an important new dimension of communication models to many in
mass communication, because it serves as an analog for editors ,e.g. who control and select the
messages that ultimately get to readers of newspapers or viewers of news programs.
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Theories of Communication ­ MCM 511
VU
INTERACTIVE MODELS
This model which depicts communication as an interactive process originated in the 1950's.The Osgood
and Schramm interactive model emphasizes the sharing of information between communicator, who
gives and receive information interactively.
Osgood and Schramm interactive model
The circular model describes communication as interactive and interpretive, with communicators almost
simultaneously sending and receiving messages. Each person alternates in his or her role as encoder
interpreter and decoder of shared messages.
TRANSACTIONAL MODELS
This model takes into consideration the character of the message and the psychological orientation of
the audience member as factors influencing the power of media effects.
OTA transactional model
The OTA (US office of technology assessment) transactional model separates communication into
three distinct processes:
1. Message formulation
2. Message interpretation
3. Message exchange
And emphasizes the interdependencies of the processes.
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Table of Contents:
  1. COMMUNICATION:Nature of communication, Transactional approach, Communication is symbolic:
  2. THEORY, PARADIGM AND MODEL (I):Positivistic Perspective, Critical Perspective
  3. THEORY, PARADIGM AND MODEL (II):Empirical problems, Conceptual problems
  4. FROM COMMUNICATION TO MASS COMMUNICATION MODELS:Channel
  5. NORMATIVE THEORIES:Authoritarian Theory, Libertarian Theory, Limitations
  6. HUTCHINS COMMISSION ON FREEDOM, CHICAGO SCHOOL & BASIC PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY THEORY
  7. CIVIC JOURNALISM, DEVELOPMENT MEDIA THEORY & DEMOCRATIC PARTICIPANT THEORY
  8. LIMITATIONS OF THE PRESS THEORY:Concentration and monopoly, Commercialism
  9. MCQUAIL’S FOUR KINDS OF THEORIES:Social scientific theory, Critical theory
  10. PROPAGANDA THEORIES:Origin of Propaganda, Engineering of Consent, Behaviorism
  11. PARADIGM SHIFT & TWO STEP FLOW OF INFORMATION
  12. MIDDLE RANGE THEORIES:Background, Functional Analysis Approach, Elite Pluralism
  13. KLAPPER’S PHENOMENSITIC THEORY:Klapper’s Generalizations, Criticism
  14. DIFFUSION OF INNOVATION THEORY:Innovators, Early adopters
  15. CHALLENGING THE DOMINANT PARADIGM:Catharsis Social learning Social cognitive theory
  16. SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEROY:Symbolizing Capacity, MODELLING
  17. MODELING FROM MASS MEDIA:Recent research, Summary, PRIMING EFFECTS
  18. PRIMING EFFECT:Conceptual Roots, Perceived meaning, Percieved justifiability
  19. CULTIVATION OF PERCEPTIONS OF SOCIAL REALITY:History
  20. SYSTEMS THEORIES OF COMMUNICATION PROCESSES:System
  21. EMERGENCE OF CRITICAL & CULTURAL THEORIES OF MASS COMMUNICATION
  22. REVISION:Positivistic perspective, Interpretive Perspective, Inductive approach
  23. CRITICAL THEORIES & ROLE OF MASS COMMUNICATION IN A SOCIETY -THE MEDIATION OF SOCIAL RELATIONS
  24. ROLE OF MASS MEDIA IN SOCIAL ORDER & MARXIST THEORY:Positive View
  25. KEY PRINCIPLES USED IN MARXISM:Materialism, Class Struggle, Superstructure
  26. CONSUMER SOCIETY:Role of mass media in alienation, Summary of Marxism
  27. COMMUNICATION AND CULTURE:Neo Marxism, Characteristics of Culture
  28. HEGEMONY:What exactly is the meaning of "hegemony"?
  29. CULTURE INDUSTRY:Gramscianism on Communications Matters
  30. POLITICAL ECONOMIC THEORY I:Internationalization, Vertical Integration
  31. POLITICAL ECONOMIC THEORY II:Diversification, Instrumental
  32. POLITICAL ECONOMIC THEORY III:Criticism, Power of Advertising
  33. AGENDA SETTING THEORY:A change in thinking, First empirical test
  34. FRAMING & SPIRAL OF SILENCE:Spiral of Silence, Assessing public opinion
  35. SPIRAL OF SILENCE:Fear of isolation, Assessing public opinion, Micro-level
  36. MARSHALL MCLUHAN: THE MEDIUM IS THE MESSAGE AND MASSAGE
  37. KNOWLEDGE GAP THEORY:Criticism on Marshal McLuhan
  38. MEDIA SYSTEM DEPENDENCY THEORY:Media System Dependency Theory
  39. USES AND GRATIFICATIONS THEORY:Methods
  40. RECEPTION THEORY
  41. FRAMING AND FRAME ANALYSIS:Information Processing Theory, Summing up
  42. TRENDS IN MASS COMMUNICATION I:Communication Science, Direct channels
  43. TRENDS IN MASS COMMUNICATION II:Communication Maxims, Emotions
  44. GLOBALIZATION AND MEDIA:Mediated Communication, Post Modernism
  45. REVISION:Microscopic Theories, Mediation of Social Relations