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THE CONCEPT OF CULTURE AND THE APPLICATION OF CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY

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Introduction to Cultural Anthropology ­ SOC401
VU
Lesson 02
THE CONCEPT OF CULTURE AND THE APPLICATION OF CULTURAL
ANTHROPOLOGY
Examining Culture
We began this course by defining anthropology and its various branches. We also looked at the chief duties
of an anthropologist. In this session we will be taking a more detailed look at cultural anthropology and its
application. We will also be dissecting the phenomena of culture and looking at the special functions of
applied anthropology. Last but not least, as we all know all human occupations have their own set on ethical
implications, in this lecture we will be analyzing what an anthropologist owes to their profession and to
society at large.
Before we take a more in-depth look into cultural anthropology, we must take a moment to first define
what exactly is meant by culture. In a non-scientific way culture refers to such personal refinements as
classical music, the fine arts, cuisine, and philosophy. So an example of this theory, a person is considered
more cultured if he listens to Bach rather than Ricky Martin or to make this example more nationalistic, a
person is said to be cultured if he listens to Nusrat Fateh Ali rather than Abrar-ul-Haq. However
anthropologists use this term in a much broader term than the average man. Anthropologists don't
differentiate between the cultured people and un-cultured people. All people have culture according to the
anthropological definition.
We will define culture as every thing people have, think, and do as members of a society. This definition can
be most useful since the three verbs correspond to the three major components of culture. That is,
everything people have refers to material possessions, everything people think refers to the things they carry
around in their heads, such as ideas, values, and attitudes; and everything people do refers too behavior
patterns. Thus, all cultures compromise material objects, ideas, values, and attitudes; and patterned ways of
behaving.
Just to give you better understanding of culture, let us look at some of its main attributes:
·
Culture includes everything that people have, think and do as members of a society.
·
All people have a culture
·
Culture comprises material objects; ideas, values and attitudes; and patterned ways of behaving
·
Culture is a shared phenomenon
For a thing, behavior or idea to be classified as being cultural, its must have a meaning shared by most
people in a society. Because people share a common culture, they are able to predict, with-in limits, how
others will think and behave. Cultural influences are reinterpreted and thus do not yield uniform effects.
Culture is learned
One very important factor to remember about culture is that it's learned. If we stop to think about it a loot
of what we do during our waking hours is learned. Brushing our teeth, eating three times a day, attending
school, tying our show laces, these are all actions that we had to learn and yet they are an integral part of our
culture.
While humans do have instincts, culture is not transmitted genetically. The process of learning culture is
called enculturation, which is similar in process but differs in terms of content. Culture is necessary for our
survival and effects how we think and act. People from the same culture can predict how others will react
due to cultural conditioning.
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Introduction to Cultural Anthropology ­ SOC401
VU
Cultural Universals
Cultural universals include economic systems; systems of marriage and family; education systems; social
control systems; and systems of communication. Some cultural systems are seemingly invisible, such as
insurance in the form of family based social safety nets (many people in the developing world do not have
insurance, instead they rely on their families for support. While it seems that these people have no one to
help them in times of need, they in fact do have social safety nets in the form of family support). The
versatility of cultural systems illustrates how flexible and adaptable humans are.
Adaptive and Maladaptive Features of Culture
Human beings rely more on cultural than biological adaptation to adjust to different types of environments
including deserts and very cold areas. The clothing habits of Eskimos in the North Pole, allows them to live
in a place which is naturally very inhospitable. Biologically, they are the same as us, but they have learned to
wear more appropriate clothing with lots of fur to keep the cold out. These items of clothing have become
a cultural trade-mark with them. Whenever we think of Eskimos, we think of them laden with furs. Humans
can now even live in outer space or under water for limited periods of time.
Maladaptive or dysfunctional aspects of culture such as pollution can threaten or damage human
environments. The consumption of leaded petrol is bad for the environment, yet given our reliance on
automobiles, it is difficult to do without them. So what started of as an adaptive aspect allowing us to travel
great distances has no become a maladaptive aspect of culture, due to the sheer number of cars to be found
around the world.
Integrative Aspects of Culture
Cultures are logical and coherent systems shaped by particular contexts. Various parts of culture are
interconnected. Yet culture is more than a sum of its parts.
Culture and the Individual
Although culture influences on the thoughts, actions and behavior of individuals, it does not determine
them exclusively. There is a diverse range of individuality to be found within one culture. Most cultures are
also comprised of subcultures, for example, artists in most societies have a slightly different way of dressing,
talking and thinking that mainstream people in their communities.
Applied versus Pure Anthropology
Pure anthropology is concerned refining methods and theories to obtain increasingly accurate and valid
anthropological data. On the other hand, applied anthropologists' aims to understand and recommend
changes in human behavior to alleviate contemporary problems.
Problem-Oriented Research
Anthropologists can apply anthropological data, concepts and strategies to the solution of socio-economic,
political problems facing different cultures.
Anthropologists can focus on development, research or advocacy, to help improve the human condition
Specialized Functions for Applied Anthropologists
a
Policy Researcher: provides cultural data to policy makers to facilitate informed decisions
b
Evaluator: use research skills to determine how well a policy or program has succeeded in its
objectives
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Introduction to Cultural Anthropology ­ SOC401
VU
c
Impact Assessor: measuring or assessing the effect of a particular project or policy.
d
Needs Assessor: use research skills to determine particular needs of a community of people
e
Trainer: impart cultural knowledge about certain populations to different groups
Ethical Implications
Responsibility to the People Studied: Anthropologists have an ethical responsibility to the people they
are studying; they need to present their finding in an unbiased way so that the true picture of their culture/
way of life can be presented.
Responsibility to the discipline: The chief concern of all anthropologists should be to their discipline.
They must conduct their research in such a way that their findings play an integral part in consolidating their
discipline.
Responsibility to Sponsors: Most research that is done in the field is sponsored by one organization or
another or in some cases some individuals are carrying out the burden of sponsorship, the anthropologists
must ensure that he carries out his duties with the utmost sense of responsibility.
Responsibility to Own and Host government: Most researchers conduct research internationally where
they have to respect the laws of their own country and that of the host country.
Useful Terms
Implications: results
Dissection: to take apart
Enculturation: the process by which human infants learn their culture
Versatile: different/ having a varying range
Ethical: moral
Suggested Readings
Students are advised to read the following chapters to develop a better understanding of the various
principals highlighted in this hand-out:
Chapters 2 and 3 in `Cultural Anthropology: An Applied Perspective' by Ferrarro and/or Chapter 13 in `Anthropology'
by Ember and Pergrine
Internet Resources
In addition to reading from the textbook, please visit the following website for this lecture:
Applied Anthropology
http://www.indiana.edu/~wanthro/applied.htm
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Table of Contents:
  1. WHAT IS ANTHROPOLOGY?:Cultural Anthropology, Internet Resources
  2. THE CONCEPT OF CULTURE AND THE APPLICATION OF CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY
  3. MAJOR THEORIES IN CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY:Diffusionism
  4. GROWTH OF ANTHROPOLOGICAL THEORY (continued):Post Modernism
  5. METHODS IN CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY:Comments on Fieldwork
  6. METHODS IN CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY (continued):Census Taking
  7. COMPARATIVE STUDY OF PRODUCTION, DISTRIBUTION AND CONSUMPTION IN DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE WORLD
  8. ECONOMIC ANTHROPOLOGY (continued):THE DISTRIBUTION OF GOODS AND SERVICES
  9. FOCUSING ON LANGUAGE:Languages of the World, Structure of Language
  10. FOCUS ON LANGUAGE (continued):Levels of Complexity, Cultural Emphasis
  11. OBTAINING FOOD IN DIFFERENT CULTURES:Optimal Foraging, Suggested Readings
  12. FOOD AND CULTURE (continued):Food Collectors, Food Production
  13. OBTAINING FOOD IN DIFFERENT CULTURE (continued):Pastoralism, Agriculture
  14. RELEVANCE OF KINSHIP AND DESCENT:Kinship Criteria, Rules of Descent
  15. KINSHIP AND DESCENT (continued):Tracing Descent, Primary Kinship Systems
  16. THE ROLE OF FAMILY AND MARRIAGE IN CULTURE:Economic Aspect of Marriage
  17. ROLE OF FAMILY AND MARRIAGE IN CULTURE (continued):Family Structures
  18. GENDER AND CULTURE:Gender Stratification, Suggested Readings
  19. GENDER ROLES IN CULTURE (continued):Women Employment, Feminization of Poverty
  20. STRATIFICATION AND CULTURE:Social Ranking, Dimensions of Inequality
  21. THEORIES OF STRATIFICATION (continued):The Functionalists, Conflict Theorists
  22. CULTURE AND CHANGE:Inventions, Diffusion, Donor, Conventional
  23. CULTURE AND CHANGE (continued):Cultural Interrelations, Reaction to Change
  24. CULTURE AND CHANGE (continued):Planned Change, Globalization
  25. POLITICAL ORGANIZATION:Bands, Tribal Organizations, Chiefdoms
  26. POLITICAL ORGANIZATION (continued):State Systems, Nation-States
  27. POLITICAL ORGANIZATION (continued):Social Norms, Informal Mechanisms
  28. PSYCHOLOGY AND CULTURE:Emotional Development, Psychological Universals
  29. PSYCHOLOGY AND CULTURE (continued):Origin of Customs, Personality Types
  30. IDEOLOGY AND CULTURE:Ideology in Everyday Life, Hegemony
  31. IDEOLOGY AND CULTURE (Continued):Political ideologies, Economic Ideology
  32. ASSOCIATIONS, CULTURES AND SOCIETIES:Variation in Associations, Age Sets
  33. ASSOCIATIONS, CULTURES AND SOCIETIES (continued):Formation of Associations
  34. RACE, ETHNICITY AND CULTURE:Similarity in Human Adaptations
  35. RACE, ETHNICITY AND CULTURE (continued):Inter-group Relations
  36. CULTURE AND BELIEFS:Social Function of Religion, Politics and Beliefs
  37. LOCAL OR INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE:Changing Definitions of Local Knowledge
  38. LOCAL OR INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE (continued):The Need for Caution
  39. ANTHROPOLOGY AND DEVELOPMENT:Influence of Development Notions
  40. ANTHROPOLOGY AND DEVELOPMENT (Continued):Contentions in Development
  41. ANTHROPOLOGY AND DEVELOPMENT (Continued):Operational
  42. CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY AND ART:Relevance of Art, Art and Politics
  43. CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY AND ART (continued):Art as a Status Symbol
  44. ETHICS IN ANTHROPOLOGY:Ethical Condemnation, Orientalism
  45. RELEVANCE OF CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY:Ensuring Cultural Survival