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RESEARCH IN BEHAVIOURAL NEUROSCIENCES:Animal Subjects, Experimental Method

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Neurological Basis of Behavior (PSY - 610)
VU
Lesson 04
RESEARCH IN BEHAVIOURAL NEUROSCIENCES
Objectives:
This would familiarize the student with:
· Research in behavioural neurosciences, research areas, animal vs. human subjects, applied vs. pure
research in these areas.
· Scientific method, research issues and focus on scientific research critical concerns. Answer such
questions "Does scientific research justify everything?"
Research is intensively ongoing and rigorously reviewed in this discipline. Not just are the
methodologies scrutinized and critically evaluated but also ethical concerns while working with humans
or animals are a priority. The research findings are continuously replicated tested for authenticity, as is it
is easy to understand keeping in view the importance of brain.
Animal Subjects
Biopsychological research is carried out on laboratory animals such as mice, rats, cats dogs,
chimpanzees, birds. These are all part of the subject population used in the varied specializations. Major
findings have emerged out of research with animals such as self stimulation, learning, feeding). The
question frequently asked is why do we need animals to study and talk about the human brain? First of
all, we must remember that it is impossible to carry out experimental manipulations on human brains.
We cannot create or bring about the changes in humans as we can in animals. Secondly, findings of
research on animals have provided impetus for therapy in neuromuscular disorder, neurochemicals
modulation, pain, brain opioids, drug addiction, aggression and fear. The series of experiments carried
out by Harlow and Harlow and their research group on young rhesus monkey and chimpanzees from the
University of Wisconsin primate Center provided a great insight into the biological need for attachment
and the drastic consequences of not having early bonding and attachment opportunities. Furthermore,
· In using simpler organism and animals, we can isolate brain structures and study even the
microcellular processes to identify brain-behavior relationships.
· We can also use naturalistic experiments or observation while controlling variables such as stimuli,
responses, environment and behavior to study animals in the open field or laboratory conditions.
Experiments on animals also have the following benefits:
1. These provide us with controls of genetic progenies (can identify genetic propagation of
abnormalities), and continue our studies longitudinally, rats live much shorter lives than human.
2. We can study and compare brains of different species mice, rats, cats, dogs, rhesus monkeys to
see continuity of behavior-brain connections.
3. Brain structures and areas similar across animals, therefore we can extrapolate or generalize to a
great extent the biological processes, the difference being that the human brain has the most
evolved cerebral cortex.
4. Brain manipulation in animals opens up avenues of investigation for humans. The Developmental
neurobiology findings are based on studies carried on rhesus monkeys early brain development
(Pasko Rakic and colleagues).
Whether we work with animals or humans, all research in the Neurosciences is scientific and
strongly based in the method of science.
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Neurological Basis of Behavior (PSY - 610)
VU
Scientific Method
Scientific method is a process of thinking and working. The scientific method is inherently simple yet
has given complex discoveries. It involves both experimental as well as non experimental work
(naturalistic studies). This method uses rules of logical thinking, critical review and testing of the
theories developed. It is said that the Scientific method is circular in nature. It begins with observation
and ends with observation, with several stages of hypothesis formulation and testing.
The Process:
a) The Hypothetico-deductive method begins with a speculation or a theory; we operationally define its
concepts, give logically deduced measurable behavioural outcomes, and test them. This testing takes
us back into the loop of evaluating the theory with evidence (this is similar to Sherlock Holmes
method).
b) Empirico-inductive is the method which places greater reliance on experience and observation.
Darwin used this method for gathering data on development of his theory of Evolution. Each
individual case is studied carefully and then on the basis similarities and differences are seen,
generalizations for theories and general populations are derived.
Experiment is a well regulated procedure where all variables are controlled and only the variable of
interest is allowed to vary and measurements carried out (assumption is you know your variables and
their relationships and the possible outcomes). Even before the outcomes you are required to predict
what you expect. The more you know your variables, the better you would be able to predict the
outcomes, (need to study before forming hypothesis).
Experimental Method
Is the method which aims to reduce random variability and help us control all variables, letting only one
variable of interest stand out for measurement? This uses various experimental designs which can give
us control in different ways:
a) Between groups design (Group A vs. Group B, Drug A vs. Drug B)
b) Within group design (We may have the same subject run through several conditions for comparison
i.e. Drug A, Drug B, control condition, the best possible match for him is the subject himself).
Controls­ This is the condition in which we don't introduce any variables, but keep them as close to
normal as possible. Why do we need them? They provide a template for comparison, a base where no
change was introduced otherwise how we would be sure of our results and the how we know what was
the normal with which we could compare.
Experimental design: As an example we have the following experiment which was actually run
and successfully published.
Experimental group
4 rat pup born to mother on the same day
Two males two females
Handled everyday
Injected memory drug twice a day
Run into mazes
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Neurological Basis of Behavior (PSY - 610)
VU
Control group
4 rat pups born same day to Mother A same litter
2 males, 2 females
Handled everyday (avoid confounding)
Injected saline twice (a the same time experimental subjects injected with memory drug)
Run into mazes
Difference in the errors and time taken would be noted and run for statistical analysis.
Research Issues:
1. Confounding: We may have too many variables that may be operating which we are not aware of
and which affect our results, these may be the age, gender, inheritance, learning, experience etc.
2. Experimenter bias: We look for data to support our hypothesis even with animals, thus the results
we see may actually be our own expectation of what we wanted to see, this is true of all behavior
especially drug experiments.
3. Use Double Blind: In it neither the experimenter nor the subject knows which the experimental
condition is or the control especially in drug studies/learning studies.
4. Placebo effect: This is a well known effect where we may get a drug like response when injected
with saline or distilled water. These work from expectations, and has actually demonstrated changes
in neurochemicals.
Single case versus Group studies
We may take many detailed measures of one subject over a longer period of variables of interest where
as in group studies many subjects are measured simultaneously. Scientist A (400 mice) scientist B (4
rats) and both could get the same results (only methodology is different).
Replication
It is important to show that your findings are not just a one time chance experience. It is very important
that data and studies are replicated to authenticate findings. The repeat of all conditions should give the
same results.
Quasi Experimental Studies
Studies of groups of subjects (usually humans) when we cannot change or control all the conditions
such as drugs taken before/ age of onset of a disease etc.
Pure Research versus Applied research
Pure research is motivated by the curiosity of researcher to understand why brain has its own opiates
may be pure research. Further, for knowledge acquisition and theory building we need to understand the
basic principles of the functioning and relationship of variables. These can eventually form the base for
applied research. Applied research is focused on results which would bring benefit in terms of
treatment or drugs (either monetarily or otherwise). This does not concern or consider it necessary to
understand and build theories, only the end result is important. This is also more funding oriented as
more available for applied research to benefit humankind.
Should research focus on the future or the past while working on the present as behavior occurs or has
occurred. Why do we need to go to the past? Should we be able to predict and understand the future
outcomes or do we explain what is past? There is a continuity of the past, present and the future, we
understand the past to predict and control the future behaviors.
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Neurological Basis of Behavior (PSY - 610)
VU
Why should we study the abnormal behaviors or should we just study normal behaviors, Both ends of
the continuum are tied, the normal is one end and the abnormal is the other. Understanding why deficits
occur can give us a good idea of what functions were performed by brain areas ( like a car when it has
broken down--then we understand how each part contributes to its working.
There is a strict formal code of ethics for research and laboratory work with animals and human
subjects. Each laboratory has to justify the use of animals and ensure ethical issues are taken care of to
the teams which can visit at random (this happens in the advanced countries)
Moniz's psychosurgery technique of frontal lobotomy to treat patients with behavior and other disorders
was developed out of surgery on one chimpanzee. No side effects? He did not pursue it further, also did
not do any between and within species comparison. At that time it seemed a revolutionary procedure
(and till about the mid 1970's) this was a procedure of choice.
There was a serious lack of scientific and social responsibility, in experiments such as drug experiments
using psychoactive drug in human subjects without the subjects being aware of the effects or without
having the choice to say no.
Best advice for a budding psychologists and scientist is to question and be skeptic. This is the best
way to do research to learn and to be a scientist.
References:
·
Kalat J.W (1998) Biological Psychology Brooks/ Cole Publishing
Carlson N.R. (2005) Foundations of Physiological Psychology ( 5th Edition) Allyn and Bacon,
·
Boston
Pinel, John P.J. (2003) Biopsychology (5th edition) Allyn and Bacon Singapore
·
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Table of Contents:
  1. INTRODUCTION:Descriptive, Experimental and/ or Natural Studies
  2. BRIEF HISTORICAL REVIEW:Roots of Behavioural Neurosciences
  3. SUB-SPECIALIZATIONS WITHIN THE BEHAVIORAL NEUROSCIENCES
  4. RESEARCH IN BEHAVIOURAL NEUROSCIENCES:Animal Subjects, Experimental Method
  5. EVOLUTIONARY AND GENETIC BASIS OF BEHAVIOUR:Species specific
  6. EVOLUTIONARY AND GENETIC BASIS OF BEHAVIOUR:Decent With Modification
  7. EVOLUTIONARY AND GENETIC BASIS OF BEHAVIOUR:Stereoscopic vision
  8. GENES AND EXPERIENCE:Fixed Pattern, Proteins, Genotype, Phenotypic
  9. GENES AND EXPERIENCE:Mendelian Genetics, DNA, Sex Influenced Traits
  10. GENES AND EXPERIENCE:Genetic Basis of behavior, In breeding
  11. GENES AND EXPERIENCE:Hybrid vigor, Chromosomal Abnormalities
  12. GENES AND EXPERIENCE:Behavioral Characteristics, Alcoholism
  13. RESEARCH METHODS AND TECHNIQUES OF ASSESSMENT OF BRAIN FUNCTION
  14. RESEARCH METHODS AND TECHNIQUES OF ASSESSMENT OF BRAIN FUNCTION:Activating brain
  15. RESEARCH METHODS AND TECHNIQUES OF ASSESSMENT OF BRAIN FUNCTION:Macro electrodes
  16. RESEARCH METHODS AND TECHNIQUES OF ASSESSMENT OF BRAIN FUNCTION:Water Mazes.
  17. DEVELOPMENT OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM:Operation Head Start
  18. DEVELOPMENT OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM:Teratology studies, Aristotle
  19. DEVELOPMENT OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM:Stages of development, Neurulation
  20. DEVELOPMENT OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM:Cell competition, Synaptic Rearrangement
  21. DEVELOPMENT OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM:The issues still remain
  22. DEVELOPMENT OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM:Post natal
  23. DEVELOPMENT OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM:Oxygen level
  24. Basic Neuroanatomy:Brain and spinal cord, Glial cells, Oligodendrocytes
  25. Basic Neuroanatomy:Neuron Structure, Cell Soma, Cytoplasm, Nucleolus
  26. Basic Neuroanatomy:Control of molecules, Electrical charges, Proximal-distal
  27. Basic Neuroanatomy:Telencephalon, Mesencephalon. Myelencephalon
  28. Basic Neuroanatomy:Tegmentum, Substantia Nigra, MID BRAIN areas
  29. Basic Neuroanatomy:Diencephalon, Hypothalmus, Telencephalon, Frontal Lobe
  30. Basic Neurochemistry:Neurochemicals, Neuromodulator, Synaptic cleft
  31. Basic Neurochemistry:Changes in ionic gates, The direct method, Methods of Locating NT
  32. Basic Neurochemistry:Major Neurotransmitters, Mesolimbic, Metabolic degradation
  33. Basic Neurochemistry:Norepinephrine/ Noradrenaline, NA synthesis, Noadrenergic Pathways
  34. Basic Neurochemistry:NA and Feeding, NE and self stimulation: ICS
  35. Basic Neurochemistry:5HT and Behaviors, Serotonin and sleep, Other behaviours
  36. Basic Neurochemistry:ACH and Behaviors, Arousal, Drinking, Sham rage and attack
  37. Brain and Motivational States:Homeostasis, Temperature Regulation, Ectotherms
  38. Brain and Motivational States:Biological Rhythms, Circadian rhythms, Hunger/Feeding
  39. Brain and Motivational States:Gastric factors, Lipostatic theory, Neural Control of feeding
  40. Brain and Motivational States:Resting metabolic state, Individual differences
  41. Brain and Motivational States:Sleep and Dreams, Characteristics of sleep
  42. Higher Order Brain functions:Brain correlates, Language, Speech Comprehension
  43. Higher Order Brain functions:Aphasia and Dyslexia, Aphasias related to speech
  44. Higher Order Brain Functions:Principle of Mass Action, Long-term memory
  45. Higher Order Brain Functions:Brain correlates, Handedness, Frontal lobe