CULTURAL INFLUENCE & GENDER ROLES:Arapesh, Mundugumor

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Gender Issues In Psychology (PSY - 512)

Lesson 17

CULTURAL INFLUENCE & GENDER ROLES

Although gender stereotypes are almost universal, and gender roles too are similar across the globe, still there is

evidence that cultural practices and norms have an influence on how different societies form gender identities.

Therefore one can expect to find gender roles and identities totally different from those traditionally held.

Some cultures are exceptional models of how a culture allocates, and cultivates gender roles. This is an

evidence of the fact that gender differences are a cultural thing and has no solid biological origin.

Israeli Kibbutzim

The Kibbutzim are collective settlements in Israel. These settlements are an example of a society practicing

social and gender equality in all respects.

There is no distinction of male and female tasks. Sex of a Kibbutzim member is almost irrelevant in most

situations. Both men and women perform all sorts of tasks. They have an equal share and say in work as well as

decision making. Tasks like cooking cleaning, child care and maintenance of buildings are performed by both

men and women.

Child rearing practices are used same for male and female children. Advocates of the socio-cultural viewpoint

use this case as a support evidence for their case. However the supporters of the biological perspective quote

the case of women in the Kibbutzim who did not like the idea of staying away from their children for longer

durations during the day; this gives a clue to the existence of innate female or motherly instincts (Tiger, and

Shepher, 1975).

Margaret Mead's "Sex and Temperament in Three Primitive Societies"

One of the classic investigations of gender and cultural influences was made by Margaret Mead, which has been

reported in her Sex and Temperament in Three Primitive Societies (1935, 1963).

She studied three primitive societies in New Guinea: Arapesh, Mundugumor, and Tchambuli.

Her observations reveal how cultures form and shape gender roles; males and females become what their

cultures make them.

Arapesh

From the conventional western viewpoint, the Arapesh were "feminine" in their attitudes and

behaviors that were extremely similar.

Both men and women were gentle, sensitive to others and cooperative.

Mundugumor

The members of the Mundugumor society were cannibals and head hunters.

Men and women had similar roles like the Arapesh.

However the Mundugumor were, as opposed to the Arapesh, typically selfish and aggressive.

If the Arapesh were "feminine" from one traditional perspective, then the Mundugumors

were "masculine" in approach, both men and women.

Tchambuli

Gender differentiation was found in Tchambuli.

Males and females had clearly defined gender roles.

Men in Tchambuli performed the roles traditionally performed by females in other societies.

Tchambuli men were submissive, emotional, and nurturing towards children; women on the

other hand tended to be dominant, and rational (Macionis, 1995).

These three cases show how any person, man or woman can be taught to be masculine or feminine.

Agents of Socialization and Gender-Roles

Family

Gender Issues In Psychology (PSY - 512)

Research shows that although parents may not treat male and female children much differently, the nature of

their interaction is different.

Even in infancy fathers may indulge into more "rough-housing" play with boys than with girls (Mc Bride-

Chang, and Jacklin, 1993). Children are encouraged to play with different types of toys (Etaugh, and Liss,

1992). In case of grown up children, they are assigned household chores depending upon their sex (Mc Hale et

al., 1990).

School

The educational system, the school Curricula, the textbooks, and the teachers' attitudes contribute very

significantly to gender-role socialization. Teachers reward and encourage sex-appropriate behaviors (Fagot et

al., 1985; Ruble, and Martin, 1998). Teachers have a tendency to pay more attention to male students; they help

them, praise them and also scold them more often than females (Sadker, and Sadker, 1994). Similarly in

textbooks men are usually portrayed as more capable, able, heroic, professional, wiser and adventurous.

Females are usually shown as indulging into household chores or doing a second rate job, or assisting men.

Media

Media generally portrays women as attractive well mad-up, good looking, but not much competent, wise, or

professional. Men may not be as good looking as females, but are shown to be more competent, self-reliant,

courageous, independent, and professional.

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