ZeePedia

CONDUCTING RESEARCH IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY RESEARCH PROCESS, DESIGNS AND METHODS (CONTINUED)

<< CONDUCTING RESEARCH IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY:Evaluate Ethics
CONDUCTING RESEARCH IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY OBSERVATIONAL METHOD >>
img
Social Psychology (PSY403)
VU
Lesson 05
CONDUCTING RESEARCH IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY RESEARCH PROCESS, DESIGNS
AND METHODS (CONTINUED)
Aims:
To make students understand how to conduct social psychology research using diverse scientific
methodologies.
Objectives:
Describe empirical research and scientific method
Discuss basic steps in conducting social psychology research
Discuss important research designs
Describe observational research method
RESEARCH PROCESS
Step 6: Collect Data
In the previous lecture relationship between population and sample was described. Regarding different
sampling strategies, probability sampling, where each and every member of the population has an equal
chance of being included, was discussed. Hence, this lecture will start from Non-probability sampling
techniques, which can not guarantee the representativeness of the sample of its base population.
Non-probability samples: May not be representative; validity of inferences about population
characteristics is neither assumed nor testable
1. Purposive sampling: the investigator selects the elements to be included in the sample on the basis
of their special characteristics.
2. Accidental sampling: involves selecting respondents primarily on the basis of their availability and
willingness to respond, like newspaper interviews of people on the streets, their comments are
interesting but not necessarily representative of the wider community:
3. Convenience sampling: group composition is heavily biased and results shall never be generalized.
Commonly used in pilot studies.
4. Call-in surveys: usually used by TV and radio shows to poll the views of their audience. People
who are willing to call, pay the calls make the sample. Crossen (1994) compares the results
obtained by a random sample survey, and a call-in survey. The question was, "should UN
headquarter stay in the USA or not". In the Call-in survey, a solid majority, 67%, of 1,86,000
callers replied that it should stay out of USA, while a clear majority, 72% of survey subjects
wanted in the USA.). Despite a massive sample size, the call-in survey can not be considered
representative.
Types of Data
Qualitative data exists in a nonnumeric form
Quantitative data is numerical.
Techniques of data collection
·  Self reports: Useful to measure important subjective states, e.g., attitudes, emotions, and
perceptions. However, they rely on people's own descriptions of internal states. Because of this
drawback some people prefer direct observation
·  Direct observations
·  Archival information (accumulated records): court records, newspaper (my studies), census, govt.
documents)
These techniques are not mutually exclusive
23
img
Social Psychology (PSY403)
VU
7. Analyze the data and Reevaluate the theory
Once the data have been collected, the first part of the 7th step is to conduct data analysis, which usually
requires extensive knowledge of statistical procedures and computer software packages. The two basic
kinds of statistics are descriptive and inferential.
Types of statistics
·  Descriptive Statistics merely summarize and describe the behavior or characteristics of a particular
sample of participants in a study.
·
Inferential statistics move beyond mere description to make inferences about the larger population
from which the sample was drawn.
After data analysis determines whether the hypotheses successfully predicted the outcome of the study,
researchers next reevaluate the theory. Were the research hypotheses supported by the data, which thereby
supports the validity of the theory? If the data do not support the study's hypotheses, or if only some of the
hypotheses were supported, the theory probably needs revising.
Example: Hoveland and Sears (1940) found significant correlation between economic frustration and
lynching of black by white people in Old South.
Analysis of data also determines the validity of theory.
Step 8: Report the Results
"If research was not "written up," did it really occur?
Three ways to disseminate knowledge:
·  Publishing articles in scientific journals
·  Making presentations at professional meetings
·  Personally informing other researchers
Parts of a research article
·  Title
·  Authors and their affiliations
·  Abstract
·  Introduction
·  Method
·  Results
·  Discussion
·  Conclusions
·  References
·  Tables
·  Figures
·  Appendices (if any)
·  Footnotes (including Author Note)
Research Designs
It is almost always helpful to make a firm distinction between designs based on looking for differences
between groups and those looking for relationships/ associations between variables (Cohen & Holiday,
1982). This distinction makes the subsequent choice of appropriate analyses and statistics much more
straightforward.
Important Research Designs
There are 3 important research designs.
24
img
Social Psychology (PSY403)
VU
1. Descriptive investigations: Non-experimental designs geared towards describing phenomena. e.g., a
quantitative study to determine the normal range of body temperature of a population; a qualitative study of
the environment in an intensive care unit.
2. Designs based on differences between groups
·  Independent/ unrelated groups: ideally created by random independent sampling, or by post-hoc
division.
·
Dependent/ related groups: groups linked by some factor which means that the values of one
group are likely to influence the others (correlated); a clear example is the use of repeated-
measures design to assess change over time. Repeated-measure are very popular designs as they
require less subjects as they act as their own control. Moreover, within subject variability stays the
same under all repeated conditions. However, they have problems of order effect, which can be
overcome by counterbalancing, a strategy when half of the group is tested before (in condition 1),
and the other half is tested first in the 2nd condition, and the order is reversed for both groups. A
similar design to repeated/ dependent group design is matched samples design, where subjects are
so closely matched across conditions that they are related.
3. Designs based on association between variables: Also used in experimental situations when the level
of a variable is manipulated and associated change in the other variable is investigated, e.g., effect of
punishment and reward on performance.
Extensions of earlier 3 designs:
·
Longitudinal designs: Really an extension of a simple repeated measure design; subjects or events
are studied in order to investigate change over prolonged periods of time, as in some case studies. It
may also be called a kind of extended dependent group design.
·
Mixed designs are combinations of independent and dependent group designs, hence having the
characteristics of both.
Most Common Research Methods
The most commonly used research methods used in social psychology research are:
·
Observational research
·
Correlational research: Surveys
·
Experimental Methods
Observational Research
Description Is the Goal of Observational Research
To understand behavior so that it can be predicted, controlled, or explained, a scientist must first describe it
accurately. Observational research is a scientific method involving systematic qualitative and/or
quantitative descriptions of behavior. In collecting this data, the scientific observer would not try to
manipulate (that is, change) the behavior under study but would simply record it. Description is the primary
goal here. The common types of observational methods employed by social psychologists are naturalistic
observation, participant observation, and archival research.
25
img
Social Psychology (PSY403)
VU
Characteristics of observational research
·
Simply record the behaviour, don't attempt to change it
·
High in validity: as the observed behaviour are real and actual sample of target behaviour rather
than a sign of behavior .e.g., observation of pro-social behaviour at the time of real accident on the
road.
·
High in resource consumption: many apparatus or instruments may be required, time-consuming,
difficult to quantify
Essentials of Observation
1. Functional Analysis (Skinner, 1972) is an essential of observation consisting on:
·
Antecedent
·
Behavior
·
Consequence
2. Categories of behaviour
Categories of target behaviour need to be very clearly described and then operationally defined for better
understanding and measurement. For example, Interpersonal interaction could have following further
categories: initiates conversation, maintains conversation, maintains eye contact, among others, etc.
Categories of Aggressive behaviour:
Physical or verbal?
Physical: Pushing, hitting, kicking, punching, pinching, biting, throwing things, slapping, etc.
Verbal: Staring, frowning, cursing, speaking in a threatening way, name calling, etc
Readings
2. Franzoi, S.L. (2006). Social Psychology. New York: McGraw Hill. Chapter 2.
26
Table of Contents:
  1. INTRODUCTION TO SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY:Readings, Main Elements of Definitions
  2. INTRODUCTION TO SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY:Social Psychology and Sociology
  3. CONDUCTING RESEARCH IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY:Scientific Method
  4. CONDUCTING RESEARCH IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY:Evaluate Ethics
  5. CONDUCTING RESEARCH IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY RESEARCH PROCESS, DESIGNS AND METHODS (CONTINUED)
  6. CONDUCTING RESEARCH IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY OBSERVATIONAL METHOD
  7. CONDUCTING RESEARCH IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY CORRELATIONAL METHOD:
  8. CONDUCTING RESEARCH IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
  9. THE SELF:Meta Analysis, THE INTERNET, BRAIN-IMAGING TECHNIQUES
  10. THE SELF (CONTINUED):Development of Self awareness, SELF REGULATION
  11. THE SELF (CONTINUE…….):Journal Activity, POSSIBLE HISTORICAL EFFECTS
  12. THE SELF (CONTINUE……….):SELF-SCHEMAS, SELF-COMPLEXITY
  13. PERSON PERCEPTION:Impression Formation, Facial Expressions
  14. PERSON PERCEPTION (CONTINUE…..):GENDER SOCIALIZATION, Integrating Impressions
  15. PERSON PERCEPTION: WHEN PERSON PERCEPTION IS MOST CHALLENGING
  16. ATTRIBUTION:The locus of causality, Stability & Controllability
  17. ATTRIBUTION ERRORS:Biases in Attribution, Cultural differences
  18. SOCIAL COGNITION:We are categorizing creatures, Developing Schemas
  19. SOCIAL COGNITION (CONTINUE…….):Counterfactual Thinking, Confirmation bias
  20. ATTITUDES:Affective component, Behavioral component, Cognitive component
  21. ATTITUDE FORMATION:Classical conditioning, Subliminal conditioning
  22. ATTITUDE AND BEHAVIOR:Theory of planned behavior, Attitude strength
  23. ATTITUDE CHANGE:Factors affecting dissonance, Likeability
  24. ATTITUDE CHANGE (CONTINUE……….):Attitudinal Inoculation, Audience Variables
  25. PREJUDICE AND DISCRIMINATION:Activity on Cognitive Dissonance, Categorization
  26. PREJUDICE AND DISCRIMINATION (CONTINUE……….):Religion, Stereotype threat
  27. REDUCING PREJUDICE AND DISCRIMINATION:The contact hypothesis
  28. INTERPERSONAL ATTRACTION:Reasons for affiliation, Theory of Social exchange
  29. INTERPERSONAL ATTRACTION (CONTINUE……..):Physical attractiveness
  30. INTIMATE RELATIONSHIPS:Applied Social Psychology Lab
  31. SOCIAL INFLUENCE:Attachment styles & Friendship, SOCIAL INTERACTIONS
  32. SOCIAL INFLUENCE (CONTINE………):Normative influence, Informational influence
  33. SOCIAL INFLUENCE (CONTINUE……):Crimes of Obedience, Predictions
  34. AGGRESSION:Identifying Aggression, Instrumental aggression
  35. AGGRESSION (CONTINUE……):The Cognitive-Neo-associationist Model
  36. REDUCING AGGRESSION:Punishment, Incompatible response strategy
  37. PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR:Types of Helping, Reciprocal helping, Norm of responsibility
  38. PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR (CONTINUE………):Bystander Intervention, Diffusion of responsibility
  39. GROUP BEHAVIOR:Applied Social Psychology Lab, Basic Features of Groups
  40. GROUP BEHAVIOR (CONTINUE…………):Social Loafing, Deindividuation
  41. up Decision GROUP BEHAVIOR (CONTINUE……….):GroProcess, Group Polarization
  42. INTERPERSONAL POWER: LEADERSHIP, The Situational Perspective, Information power
  43. SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY APPLIED: SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY IN COURT
  44. SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY APPLIED: SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY IN CLINIC
  45. FINAL REVIEW:Social Psychology and related fields, History, Social cognition