ZeePedia

BEHAVIORAL APPROACH:Behaviorist Analysis, Basic Terminology, Basic Terminology

<< THE PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH/ MODEL:Psychic Determinism, Preconscious
THE HUMANISTIC APPROACH AND THE COGNITIVE APPROACH:Rogers’ Approach >>
img
Introduction to Psychology ­PSY101
VU
Lesson 6
BEHAVIORAL APPROACH
The psychological model that focuses on the overt, observable, behavior. The model grew out of the
rejection of psychology's early emphasis on the inner working of the mind, suggesting instead that
observable behavior should be the focus of the field. John B. Watson was the first person that advocated
the behavioral approach. This is a psychological approach that considers the relationship between behavior
and environmental stimuli as the focus of study; observable behavior is what psychology should be
studying, understanding, and explaining.
This approach dominated psychology for most of the 20th century
What do the Behaviorists Study?
They specifically study:
·  Observable/ overt behavior
·  Specific measurable responses
·  How particular types of behaviors are controlled by particular types of environmental stimuli
Method of investigation: Data are typically collected under controlled laboratory conditions, employing
technological assistance
What the Behaviorists Are Not Interested in:
They are not interested in:
·
Unconscious
·
Inner motivation
·
Biochemical processes
·
These and all other states, which are not being observed with the naked eye or cannot be
evaluated.
Behaviorist Analysis
Behaviorist Analysis is done for seeing and establishing the relationship between the stimulus and
response/ behavior.
Three step approach
·
The antecedent environmental conditions: are analyzed. i.e., the conditions preceding the
action/ response/ behavior, and that lay a ground for it.
·
The behavioral response is studied: study of the action or behavior that is to be understood,
described, predicted, and controlled.
·
Observable consequences are explored: the impact resulting from the target behavior i.e.
how it affects the environment or other people.
Basic Terminology
·
Stimulus: A physical energy source that has an effect on a sense organ, thus producing a
response.
·
Response: The action, behavior, or reaction triggered by a stimulus.
·
Environment: External factors, variables, conditions, influences, or circumstance affecting one's
development or behavior.
·
Variable: A behavior, factor, setting, or event that can change / vary in amount or kind.
·
Learning: A relatively permanent change in behavior that takes place as a result of practice and/
or experience.
35
img
Introduction to Psychology ­PSY101
VU
Edwin L.Thorndike: (1874- 1949)
Edwin L.Thorndike, was an American psychologist, who's thinking is thoroughly associationistic.
He was a functionalist in his emphasis on the utilitarian aspect of psychology. According to him,
psychology is about the stimulus- response connections. He was of the view that behavior can be
analyzed into associations. He said that the behavioral processes are quantifiable. Believed that
behavior was explicable on the basis of nothing but stimulus- response connections inherited and
acquired.
Initial work: in1898 (published dissertation) studied problem solving in animals. Tried to analyze the
conditions under which animals learn.
Focus of the study: the relationship between the animals' response and their consequences.
Main finding: The consequence of any response determines if the response will be repeated in future or
not: "The Law of Effect"
The Law of Effect: Any response that leads to an outcome that is satisfying for the organism is likely to
be repeated; a response leading to an outcome that is not satisfying is not likely to be repeated
Association by Contiguity
·
The organism forms an association or connection between the response and its
consequences. For it to be effective, the response and the outcome have to be closely
linked -- both in time and space
·
The theory drew attention towards the significance of reward and punishment in
learning new behaviors
Criticism against Thorndike's Approach
It was not clear about what exactly `Satisfying' meant.
Early Behaviorism
John.B.Watson: (1878- 1958): The founder of the behavioristic school of thought.
·  American psychologist with a remarkable career.
·  Initially trained in introspection at the University of Chicago but found it extremely vague and mentalistic.
·  He became interested in experimental research with animals.
·  He completed his Ph.D. on that in three years, being the youngest such graduate.
·  Taught at the University of Chicago for four years, joined John Hopkins as full professor and
soon became chairperson of the psychology department.
·  Gave a revolutionary, pragmatic approach often known as `Radical Behaviorism'.
·  He and his followers believed and advocated that psychology should depart from the study of
unconscious and the mind because they could not be verified or tested scientifically.
·  Observable behavior is all that psychology should be looking at.
·  Environment and external world (environmental stimuli) is what shapes and determines
behavior.
·  Learning is what matters in what a person is, and not the inborn instincts, impulses, drive, id,
or unconscious motivation. An understanding of learning will encompass all aspects of
personality.
·  Mentalist concepts, not grounded in reality, should be rejected.
Impact of Learning Experience
"Give me a dozen healthy infants, well formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in, and
I'll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select -
36
img
Introduction to Psychology ­PSY101
VU
- doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief, and yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents,
penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations and race of his ancestors". (Watson, 1924)
Learned Fear: The Case of "Little Albert"
1920: Developing Fear; Watson and Rosalie Rayne Eleven month old Albert who  enjoyed playing
with a cute white rat was made afraid of it by linking a loud frightening sound with the appearance
of the rat. The experiment was further expanded and Watson and Rayner demonstrated that the
fear of the rat could be generalized to all sorts of stimuli: a dog, a cotton ball and a Santa Clause.
Watson and Rayner could not get a chance to undo the learning as the child's mother removed him
from the hospital.
Issues stemming from Little Albert's Experiment
·
Unethical treatment of Albert, that too without the advised consent of his mother.
·
Watson contradicted his own earlier assertion that early childhood emotional
experiences can affect a person for a lifetime.
Classical Conditioning
Why are children scared of darkness?
Why some children jump with joy at the sight of a bear and some start screaming in fright?
Why does one coming from abroad start feeling happy at the very sight of his parents' home?
Why does one start feeling bad at the thought of going to a dentist?
The answers to all these questions can be found in the classical conditioning approach
Classical Conditioning: The History
·
Ivan Pavlov 1849-1936: Russian physiologist and pioneer of classical conditioning.
·
In the later years of the 19th century studied the basic process of digestion and won
Nobel Prize for that in 1904.
·
The focal point was the salivation reflex in dogs.
·
It was already known that the dogs would salivate if food powder were led into their mouths,
as it was a `reflex'.
·
The dogs salivated every time the food powder was presented.
·
He observed that after some time, the dogs at times salivated just before food was put into
their mouths. They also salivated at the sight of the food, and even at the sight of the lab
assistant who brought food for them.
·
This is where the concept of classical conditioning emerged.
Classical Conditioning: The Theory
Is a type of learning in which a previously neutral stimulus starts eliciting a response that
was originally attached to a natural stimulus, because the neutral stimulus has been closely
associated with the other stimulus.
Basic Terminology in Classical Conditioning
·
Reflex
37
img
Introduction to Psychology ­PSY101
VU
An automatic, unlearned response resulting from a specific stimulus.
·
Un-Conditioned Stimulus (UCS)
A stimulus that elicits a response reflexively and reliably.
·
Un-Conditioned Response (UCR)
A natural, reflexive, reliable, response of the UCS.
·
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
A primarily neutral stimulus which, when paired with the UCS, starts evoking a response
(different from its natural response) and the same as UCR.
·
Conditioned Response (CR)
After conditioning, the CS begins to elicit a new, learned response. i.e. CR.
Pavlovian Classical Conditioning
The following diagram explains the classical conditioning model:
Before Conditioning
Neutral Stimulus
(Orientation to sound
(tone)
but no response)
UCS
UCR
(food power in mouth)
(salivation)
During Conditioning
Neutral Stimulus
(tone) CS
CR
+
(salivation)
UCS
(food power)
After Conditioning
CS
CR
(tone)
(salivation)
Little Albert's Case
Before Conditioning
Neutral Stimulus
(Liking)
(Rat)
UCS
UCR
(Loud noise)
(Fear)
During Conditioning
Neutral Stimulus
(Rat) CS
CR
+
(Fear )
UCS
(Loud noise)
After Conditioning
CS
CR
(Rat)
(Fear)
38
img
Introduction to Psychology ­PSY101
VU
Extensions of the Main Classical Conditioning Model
There are a number of other variations and extensions of this model, which will be discussed in detail in the
section on learning. Here, we will just name them:
·  Extinction
·  Spontaneous recovery
·  Stimulus generalization
·  Stimulus discrimination
Applications of Classical Conditioning in Everyday Life
·
Negative emotional responses: fears, phobias-----fear of lizards, dark places, school phobia
·
Positive emotional responses: Feelings of relaxation, and happiness --- thinking of going on a
holiday
·
Advertising: Associating model with the product
·
Psychotherapy: Systematic desensitization, aversive therapy
Operant Conditioning
·
Why do teachers give stars on children's workbooks?
·
Why do parents clap happily when their child utters the first words that nobody else can
decipher?
·  Why do manufacturers of products announce prize schemes for the consumers of their
products?
The answers to all these questions can be found in the "Operant Conditioning" approach.
Operant Conditioning
·
Type of learning in which a voluntary response becomes stronger or weaker, depending
on its positive or negative consequences
·
The organism plays an active role and "Operates" on environment to produce the desired
outcome
Burrhus Frederic Skinner (1904-1990)
·
American Psychologist and the founder of Operant Conditioning.
·
1931: Received his Ph.D. from Harvard.
·
During World War II, he conducted research on teaching pigeons to direct missiles to
targets while flying in nose- cone. However the idea did not materialize.
·
1947: Went back to Harvard to deliver `William James' lectures.
·
1948: Appointed as full professor at Harvard.
·
While a graduate student at Harvard he started thinking on Operant Conditioning
lines.
·
His theory is somewhat similar to Thorndike's, but it was actually Watson who
impressed him.
The Typical Skinnerian procedure
·
A special apparatus usually known as skinner's box is used.
·
Laboratory animals learn to press a lever so that food is delivered to them.
·
The environment is controlled.
·
The animal operates on the environment and as a result of its behavior it may be
rewarded or punished. Food is the reward
·
The consequence determines if the response will be repeated or not.
39
img
Introduction to Psychology ­PSY101
VU
Shaping: Successive approximations of a required / desired response are reinforced until that
response is fully learnt:
·
In the beginning each and every success is reinforced with a reward, no matter how small the
success.
·
Once the desired response is learnt the rein forcer immediately follows it, every time it
happens.
·
Once learnt the behavior, in many cases, the organism may not need reinforcement any more,
since many behaviors are self-reinforcing e.g. learning to play a musical instrument.
Acquisition: Initially the response rate following reinforcement may be slow but at one stage it increases to
the maximum. This is acquisition.
Extinction: If reinforcement is withheld the response rate decreases and finally no response is shown. This
is extinction.
Reinforcement
4. Reinforcement: Increasing the probability that preceding behavior will be repeated through a
stimulus.
5. Positive Rein forcer: A stimulus whose introduction brings about an increase in the preceding
response.
6. Negative Rein forcer: A stimulus whose removal reinforces and leads to a higher likelihood that
the response bringing about this removal will be repeated.
7. Punishment: An unpleasant or painful stimulus whose introduction following a certain behavior
decreases likelihood that the behavior will occur again.
Applications of Operant Conditioning in Everyday Life
·
Child rearing
·
Classroom management
·
Teaching of skills
·
Animal taming
·
Advertising
·
Psychological intervention and Psycho- therapy: behavior modification, assertiveness
training, token economy
Cognitive Approaches to Learning
The approaches that focus upon the thought processes underlying learning. Latent Learning and cognitive
maps (Edward Tolman); Tolman talked about the `cognitive maps'; it is not necessary to have an association
between stimulus and response, a person can learn without showing any apparent response; in other words
learning and performance are not the same
Social learning / Observational learning and Modeling (Albert Bandura): a major portion of our learning is
based upon learning by observation.
40
Table of Contents:
  1. WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?:Theoretical perspectives of psychology
  2. HISTORICAL ROOTS OF MODERN PSYCHOLOGY:HIPPOCRATES, PLATO
  3. SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT:Biological Approach, Psychodynamic Approach
  4. PERSPECTIVE/MODEL/APPROACH:Narcosis, Chemotherapy
  5. THE PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH/ MODEL:Psychic Determinism, Preconscious
  6. BEHAVIORAL APPROACH:Behaviorist Analysis, Basic Terminology, Basic Terminology
  7. THE HUMANISTIC APPROACH AND THE COGNITIVE APPROACH:Rogers’ Approach
  8. RESEARCH METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY (I):Scientific Nature of Psychology
  9. RESEARCH METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY (II):Experimental Research
  10. PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT AND NATURE NURTURE ISSUE:Nature versus Nurture
  11. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT:Socio- Cultural Factor, The Individual and the Group
  12. NERVOUS SYSTEM (1):Biological Bases of Behavior, Terminal Buttons
  13. NERVOUS SYSTEM (2):Membranes of the Brain, Association Areas, Spinal Cord
  14. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM:Pineal Gland, Pituitary Gland, Dwarfism
  15. SENSATION:The Human Eye, Cornea, Sclera, Pupil, Iris, Lens
  16. HEARING (AUDITION) AND BALANCE:The Outer Ear, Auditory Canal
  17. PERCEPTION I:Max Wertheimer, Figure and Ground, Law of Closure
  18. PERCEPTION II:Depth Perception, Relative Height, Linear Perspective
  19. ALTERED STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS:Electroencephalogram, Hypnosis
  20. LEARNING:Motor Learning, Problem Solving, Basic Terminology, Conditioning
  21. OPERANT CONDITIONING:Negative Rein forcer, Punishment, No reinforcement
  22. COGNITIVE APPROACH:Approach to Learning, Observational Learning
  23. MEMORY I:Functions of Memory, Encoding and Recoding, Retrieval
  24. MEMORY II:Long-Term Memory, Declarative Memory, Procedural Memory
  25. MEMORY III:Memory Disorders/Dysfunctions, Amnesia, Dementia
  26. SECONDARY/ LEARNT/ PSYCHOLOGICAL MOTIVES:Curiosity, Need for affiliation
  27. EMOTIONS I:Defining Emotions, Behavioral component, Cognitive component
  28. EMOTIONS II:Respiratory Changes, Pupillometrics, Glandular Responses
  29. COGNITION AND THINKING:Cognitive Psychology, Mental Images, Concepts
  30. THINKING, REASONING, PROBLEM- SOLVING AND CREATIVITY:Mental shortcuts
  31. PERSONALITY I:Definition of Personality, Theories of Personality
  32. PERSONALITY II:Surface traits, Source Traits, For learning theorists, Albert Bandura
  33. PERSONALITY III:Assessment of Personality, Interview, Behavioral Assessment
  34. INTELLIGENCE:The History of Measurement of Intelligence, Later Revisions
  35. PSYCHOPATHOLOGY:Plato, Aristotle, Asclepiades, In The Middle Ages
  36. ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR I:Medical Perspective, Psychodynamic Perspective
  37. ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR II:Hypochondriasis, Conversion Disorders, Causes include
  38. PSYCHOTHERAPY I:Psychotherapeutic Orientations, Clinical Psychologists
  39. PSYCHOTHERAPY II:Behavior Modification, Shaping, Humanistic Therapies
  40. POPULAR AREAS OF PSYCHOLOGY:ABC MODEL, Factors affecting attitude change
  41. HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY:Understanding Health, Observational Learning
  42. INDUSTRIAL/ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY:‘Hard’ Criteria and ‘Soft’ Criteria
  43. CONSUMER PSYCHOLOGY:Focus of Interest, Consumer Psychologist
  44. SPORT PSYCHOLOGY:Some Research Findings, Arousal level
  45. FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY:Origin and History of Forensic Psychology