ZeePedia

ECONOMIC ANTHROPOLOGY (continued):THE DISTRIBUTION OF GOODS AND SERVICES

<< COMPARATIVE STUDY OF PRODUCTION, DISTRIBUTION AND CONSUMPTION IN DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE WORLD
FOCUSING ON LANGUAGE:Languages of the World, Structure of Language >>
img
Introduction to Cultural Anthropology ­ SOC401
VU
Lesson 08
ECONOMIC ANTHROPOLOGY (continued)
THE DISTRIBUTION OF GOODS AND SERVICES
Modes of Distribution
Economic Anthropologists categorize the distribution of goods and services in three modes; reciprocity,
redistribution and market exchange. Based on these three forms of exchange, cultures around the world
distribute the goods and services produced by them, in order to ensure the survival of the various people
which belong to that particular culture.
1. Reciprocity implies exchange of goods and services of almost equal value between two trading
partners.
2. Redistribution, most common in societies with political bureaucracies, is a form of exchange
where goods and services are given by a central authority and then reallocated to create new
patterns of distribution.
3. Market exchange systems involve the use of standardized currencies to buy and sell goods and
services.
Types of Reciprocity
The idea of reciprocity can be divided into the following distinct types of practices evident in cultures
around the world:
1. Generalized reciprocity involves giving gifts without any expectation of immediate return. For
example, the parents look after their children and these children, when they grow older look after
their aging parents. This is an unsaid rule or obligation towards one family, which people undertake
willingly out of love and concern and without any external compulsion or the idea of getting
something back in return for their caring attitudes.
2. Balanced reciprocity involves the exchange of goods and services with the expectation that the
equivalent value will be returned within a specific period of time. For example, if a neighbor's son
or daughter is getting married, the neighbors will take gifts to the wedding, and then expect the
same courtesy when their own child's wedding. The notion of birthday gifts is even more time
specific, and thus serves as a good example of balanced reciprocity.
3. Negative reciprocity involves the exchange of goods and services between equals in which the
parties try to gain an advantage, in order to maximize their own profit, even if it requires hard-
bargaining or exploiting the other person.
Redistribution
Whereas reciprocity is the exchange of goods and services between two parties, redistribution involves a
social centre from which goods are redistributed. Often this redistribution takes place through a political or
bureaucratic agency (e.g. the revenue collection or tax department which is found in most countries or even
the zakat system in Pakistan, based on a religious ideology, which is meant to redistribute wealth to those
who are destitute).
Market Exchange
Market exchange is based on use of standardized currencies or through the barter (exchange) of goods and
services. This system of exchange is much less personal than either reciprocity or redistribution. People
21
img
Introduction to Cultural Anthropology ­ SOC401
VU
trade in a marketplace to maximize their profits. The greater the specialization of labor that exists in a
society, the more complex is the system of market exchange to be found in that society.
Globalization
Globalization involves the spread of the free-market economies to all parts of the world based on the
assumption that more growth will take place when free trade and competition becomes a universal
phenomenon.
Globalization has begun to show visible impacts on the cultures and lives of people around the world.
There are people who favor globalization, thinking it will help remove poverty across much of the world,
but they are also those who think that globalization will do the exact opposite.
Useful Terms
Organic Solidarity: a type of social integration based on mutual inter-dependence.
Particularism: the propensity to be able to deal with people according to one's particular relationship to
them rather than according to a universal standard.
Production: a process where by goods are taken from the natural environment and then altered to become
consumable goods for society.
Property Rights: western concept of individual ownership.
Standardized Currency: a medium of exchange with well defined and an understood value.
Universalism: the notion of awarding people on the basis of some universally applied set of standards.
Suggested Readings
Students are advised to read the following chapters to develop a better understanding of the various
principals highlighted in this hand-out:
Chapter 8 in `Cultural Anthropology: An Applied Perspective' by Ferrarro and/or Chapter 17 in `Anthropology' by
Ember and Pergrine
Internet Resources
In addition to reading from the textbook, please visit the following website for this lecture:
Economic Anthropology
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_anthropology
Use the hyperlinks on the above website to read up on the following aspects of Economic Anthropology
for today's lecture:
Non-market economics
22
Table of Contents:
  1. WHAT IS ANTHROPOLOGY?:Cultural Anthropology, Internet Resources
  2. THE CONCEPT OF CULTURE AND THE APPLICATION OF CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY
  3. MAJOR THEORIES IN CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY:Diffusionism
  4. GROWTH OF ANTHROPOLOGICAL THEORY (continued):Post Modernism
  5. METHODS IN CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY:Comments on Fieldwork
  6. METHODS IN CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY (continued):Census Taking
  7. COMPARATIVE STUDY OF PRODUCTION, DISTRIBUTION AND CONSUMPTION IN DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE WORLD
  8. ECONOMIC ANTHROPOLOGY (continued):THE DISTRIBUTION OF GOODS AND SERVICES
  9. FOCUSING ON LANGUAGE:Languages of the World, Structure of Language
  10. FOCUS ON LANGUAGE (continued):Levels of Complexity, Cultural Emphasis
  11. OBTAINING FOOD IN DIFFERENT CULTURES:Optimal Foraging, Suggested Readings
  12. FOOD AND CULTURE (continued):Food Collectors, Food Production
  13. OBTAINING FOOD IN DIFFERENT CULTURE (continued):Pastoralism, Agriculture
  14. RELEVANCE OF KINSHIP AND DESCENT:Kinship Criteria, Rules of Descent
  15. KINSHIP AND DESCENT (continued):Tracing Descent, Primary Kinship Systems
  16. THE ROLE OF FAMILY AND MARRIAGE IN CULTURE:Economic Aspect of Marriage
  17. ROLE OF FAMILY AND MARRIAGE IN CULTURE (continued):Family Structures
  18. GENDER AND CULTURE:Gender Stratification, Suggested Readings
  19. GENDER ROLES IN CULTURE (continued):Women Employment, Feminization of Poverty
  20. STRATIFICATION AND CULTURE:Social Ranking, Dimensions of Inequality
  21. THEORIES OF STRATIFICATION (continued):The Functionalists, Conflict Theorists
  22. CULTURE AND CHANGE:Inventions, Diffusion, Donor, Conventional
  23. CULTURE AND CHANGE (continued):Cultural Interrelations, Reaction to Change
  24. CULTURE AND CHANGE (continued):Planned Change, Globalization
  25. POLITICAL ORGANIZATION:Bands, Tribal Organizations, Chiefdoms
  26. POLITICAL ORGANIZATION (continued):State Systems, Nation-States
  27. POLITICAL ORGANIZATION (continued):Social Norms, Informal Mechanisms
  28. PSYCHOLOGY AND CULTURE:Emotional Development, Psychological Universals
  29. PSYCHOLOGY AND CULTURE (continued):Origin of Customs, Personality Types
  30. IDEOLOGY AND CULTURE:Ideology in Everyday Life, Hegemony
  31. IDEOLOGY AND CULTURE (Continued):Political ideologies, Economic Ideology
  32. ASSOCIATIONS, CULTURES AND SOCIETIES:Variation in Associations, Age Sets
  33. ASSOCIATIONS, CULTURES AND SOCIETIES (continued):Formation of Associations
  34. RACE, ETHNICITY AND CULTURE:Similarity in Human Adaptations
  35. RACE, ETHNICITY AND CULTURE (continued):Inter-group Relations
  36. CULTURE AND BELIEFS:Social Function of Religion, Politics and Beliefs
  37. LOCAL OR INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE:Changing Definitions of Local Knowledge
  38. LOCAL OR INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE (continued):The Need for Caution
  39. ANTHROPOLOGY AND DEVELOPMENT:Influence of Development Notions
  40. ANTHROPOLOGY AND DEVELOPMENT (Continued):Contentions in Development
  41. ANTHROPOLOGY AND DEVELOPMENT (Continued):Operational
  42. CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY AND ART:Relevance of Art, Art and Politics
  43. CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY AND ART (continued):Art as a Status Symbol
  44. ETHICS IN ANTHROPOLOGY:Ethical Condemnation, Orientalism
  45. RELEVANCE OF CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY:Ensuring Cultural Survival