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ETHICS IN ANTHROPOLOGY:Ethical Condemnation, Orientalism

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Introduction to Cultural Anthropology ­ SOC401
VU
Lesson 44
ETHICS IN ANTHROPOLOGY
Ethical Condemnation
Since the 1960s, cultural anthropology has been the target of critical attacks both from within and without
the discipline. The condemnation of anthropology and anthropologists by postmodernism, literary theory,
and post-colonialism, among others, has been directed at its status as a science and its participation in the
oppression of minorities and justification of colonialism.
Critics assert that anthropology has been used solely to objectify oppressed peoples and that it cannot be
considered a science. Anthropologists are blamed for asserting domination over his or her subject due to
negative and inaccurate representations formed by the critics.
Anthropology is charged with ignoring history in studying non-Western societies and so anthropologists
have been blamed for treating cultures as isolated from neighbors and the world at large. Anthropologists
can also reinforce biases and stereotypes by using flawed methodology in their works
Orientalism
By studying the orient the scholar separates him or herself from the culture they study and recreate it as
another world. Said believes that Asians are confined by the Oriental label that has been constructed by the
European scholar.
It is natural for the human race to divide itself into "us" and "them." It is this division that leads to hostility.
The separation that arises due to scholarly study only strengthens this hostility.
Response of Anthropologists
In order to continue the study of culture, anthropology developed the term relativism, which stated that all
cultures were equal, but not necessarily alike.
Cultural anthropology could not, however, accept relativism because issues of morality became
controversial. The study of anthropology became obsessed with data analysis in order to avoid moral
judgment.
Classic anthropologists feared domination of the discipline by psychology and sociology; therefore,
anthropology, had to be redefined in order to shift the focus of the discipline back to the study of culture.
Past research existed only on exotic cultures and the theories developed from that research were used to try
to define modern, or first-world, culture. Several problems arose from this movement. Few people were
interested in studies in cities or familiar places, the exotic areas broke the rule that all cultures are equal, and,
therefore, these areas drew the attention of anthropologists. Another problem was that all previous studies
were done on societies with no recorded history, and, therefore, no changes in patterns or traditions were
observed
Defending Anthropological Integrity
Leading and influential anthropologists generally believed in uniformity in the actions and nature of
humankind, not in the idea of self and the `Other'. They wanted to study all forms of culture, at home and
abroad, to discover similarities.
There are several examples of anthropologists who recognized the importance of borrowing, diffusion, and
regional and global interactions in shaping society. Anthropology should base their criticisms on a careful
scrutiny of facts.
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Introduction to Cultural Anthropology ­ SOC401
VU
Using Criticism Constructively
Questions and ideas put forth by anthropology's critics must be used to help avoid misperceptions and
poorly founded opinions from passing on as common knowledge to the new generation of anthropologists.
Reexamination of the prevalent attitudes in anthropology can move away the notion of anthropologists as
authoritarian figures to humanistic, scientific scholars interested in comparing and contrasting cultures.
Assuring Anthropological Integrity
Objectivity and functional analysis combined with today's knowledge of psychology that is the key to
comprehensiveness and objectivity in anthropology.
Useful Terms
Objectivity ­ unbiased observation of facts
Authoritarian ­ monopolized exertion of power
Prevalent ­ existing or in current use
Scrutiny ­ study or careful observation
Suggested Readings
Students are advised to read the following chapters to develop a better understanding of the various
principals highlighted in this hand-out:
Chapter 28 in `Anthropology' by Ember
Internet Resources
In addition to reading from the textbook, please visit the following web-site for this lecture, which provide
useful and interesting information:
Ethics in Anthropology
http://www.publicanthropology.org/Journals/Engaging-Ideas/Rt(yano)/Peters1.htm
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Table of Contents:
  1. WHAT IS ANTHROPOLOGY?:Cultural Anthropology, Internet Resources
  2. THE CONCEPT OF CULTURE AND THE APPLICATION OF CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY
  3. MAJOR THEORIES IN CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY:Diffusionism
  4. GROWTH OF ANTHROPOLOGICAL THEORY (continued):Post Modernism
  5. METHODS IN CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY:Comments on Fieldwork
  6. METHODS IN CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY (continued):Census Taking
  7. COMPARATIVE STUDY OF PRODUCTION, DISTRIBUTION AND CONSUMPTION IN DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE WORLD
  8. ECONOMIC ANTHROPOLOGY (continued):THE DISTRIBUTION OF GOODS AND SERVICES
  9. FOCUSING ON LANGUAGE:Languages of the World, Structure of Language
  10. FOCUS ON LANGUAGE (continued):Levels of Complexity, Cultural Emphasis
  11. OBTAINING FOOD IN DIFFERENT CULTURES:Optimal Foraging, Suggested Readings
  12. FOOD AND CULTURE (continued):Food Collectors, Food Production
  13. OBTAINING FOOD IN DIFFERENT CULTURE (continued):Pastoralism, Agriculture
  14. RELEVANCE OF KINSHIP AND DESCENT:Kinship Criteria, Rules of Descent
  15. KINSHIP AND DESCENT (continued):Tracing Descent, Primary Kinship Systems
  16. THE ROLE OF FAMILY AND MARRIAGE IN CULTURE:Economic Aspect of Marriage
  17. ROLE OF FAMILY AND MARRIAGE IN CULTURE (continued):Family Structures
  18. GENDER AND CULTURE:Gender Stratification, Suggested Readings
  19. GENDER ROLES IN CULTURE (continued):Women Employment, Feminization of Poverty
  20. STRATIFICATION AND CULTURE:Social Ranking, Dimensions of Inequality
  21. THEORIES OF STRATIFICATION (continued):The Functionalists, Conflict Theorists
  22. CULTURE AND CHANGE:Inventions, Diffusion, Donor, Conventional
  23. CULTURE AND CHANGE (continued):Cultural Interrelations, Reaction to Change
  24. CULTURE AND CHANGE (continued):Planned Change, Globalization
  25. POLITICAL ORGANIZATION:Bands, Tribal Organizations, Chiefdoms
  26. POLITICAL ORGANIZATION (continued):State Systems, Nation-States
  27. POLITICAL ORGANIZATION (continued):Social Norms, Informal Mechanisms
  28. PSYCHOLOGY AND CULTURE:Emotional Development, Psychological Universals
  29. PSYCHOLOGY AND CULTURE (continued):Origin of Customs, Personality Types
  30. IDEOLOGY AND CULTURE:Ideology in Everyday Life, Hegemony
  31. IDEOLOGY AND CULTURE (Continued):Political ideologies, Economic Ideology
  32. ASSOCIATIONS, CULTURES AND SOCIETIES:Variation in Associations, Age Sets
  33. ASSOCIATIONS, CULTURES AND SOCIETIES (continued):Formation of Associations
  34. RACE, ETHNICITY AND CULTURE:Similarity in Human Adaptations
  35. RACE, ETHNICITY AND CULTURE (continued):Inter-group Relations
  36. CULTURE AND BELIEFS:Social Function of Religion, Politics and Beliefs
  37. LOCAL OR INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE:Changing Definitions of Local Knowledge
  38. LOCAL OR INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE (continued):The Need for Caution
  39. ANTHROPOLOGY AND DEVELOPMENT:Influence of Development Notions
  40. ANTHROPOLOGY AND DEVELOPMENT (Continued):Contentions in Development
  41. ANTHROPOLOGY AND DEVELOPMENT (Continued):Operational
  42. CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY AND ART:Relevance of Art, Art and Politics
  43. CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY AND ART (continued):Art as a Status Symbol
  44. ETHICS IN ANTHROPOLOGY:Ethical Condemnation, Orientalism
  45. RELEVANCE OF CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY:Ensuring Cultural Survival