MAJOR THEORIES IN CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY:Diffusionism

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Introduction to Cultural Anthropology SOC401

Lesson 03

MAJOR THEORIES IN CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY

What is a theory?

A theory suggests a relationship between different phenomenons. Theories allow us to reduce the

complexity of reality into an abstract set of principles, which serve as models to compare and contrasts

different types of realities.

Theories are based on hypotheses, which provide a proposition that needs to be tested through empirical

investigations. If what is found is consistent with what was expected, the theory will be strengthened; if not,

the theory will be either abandoned or some more time will be spent on it to revise it.

Anthropological theory changes constantly as new data comes forth. Anthropological theories attempt to

answer such questions as, why do people behave the way they do? And, how do we account for human

diversity? These questions guided the early nineteenth attempts to theorize and continue to be relevant

today. We will explore the in chorological order, the major theoretical schools of cultural anthropology that

have developed since the mid-nineteenth century. Some of the earlier theoretical orientations such as

diffusionism no longer attract much attention; however others such as evolutionism have been modified

and re-worked into something new.

It is easy in hindsight, to demonstrate the inherit flaws in some of the early theoretical orientations.

However, we should keep in mind, however, that contempary anthropological theories that may appear

plausible today were built on what we learnt from those older theories.

Cultural Evolutionism

According to this theory, all cultures undergo the same development stages in the same order. To develop a

better understanding of these various development stages it is important to briefly review these various

stages and their sub stages. Savagery, barbarism and civilization were three classifications that classical

anthropologists used to divide culture.

However in 1877 Lewis Henry Morgan wrote a book titled Ancient Society, in it the three stages of cultural

anthropology were further classified into 7 stages, which are as follows:

Lower Savagery: From the earliest forms of humanity subsisting on fruits and nuts.

Middle Savagery: Began with the discovery of fishing technology and the use of fire.

Upper Savagery: Began with the invention of bow and arrow.

Lower Barbarism: Began with the art of pottery making.

Middle Barbarism: Began with the domestication of plants and animals in the old world and

irrigation/ cultivation in the new world.

· Upper Barbarism: Began with the smelting of iron and the use of iron tools.

· Civilization: Began with the invention of the phonetic alphabet and writing (1877:12)

Evolution is unidirectional and leads to higher levels of culture. A deductive approach used to apply a

general theory to specific cases. Evolutionists were often ethnocentric as they put their own societies on top

of the evolutionary ladder. Yet, it did explain human behavior by rational instead of supernatural causes.

Diffusionism

Like evolutionism, diffusionism was deductive and rather theoretical, lacking evidence from the field. It

maintained that all societies change as a result of cultural borrowing from one another.

The theory highlighted the need to consider interaction between cultures but overemphasized the essentially

valid idea of diffusion.

Introduction to Cultural Anthropology SOC401

Historicism

Any culture is partially composed of traits diffused from other cultures but this does not explain the existing

complexity of different cultures. Collection of ethnographic facts must precede development of cultural

theories (inductive approach).

Direct fieldwork is considered essential, which has provided the approach a solid methodological base

emphasizing the need for empirical evidence. Each culture is, to some degree, unique. So ethnographers

should try to get the view of those being studies, not only rely on their own views.

Historicists emphasized the need for training female anthropologists to gain access to information about

female behavior in traditional societies. Their anti-theoretical stance is criticized for retarding growth of the

anthropological discipline.

Psychological Anthropology

Anthropologists need to explore the relationships between psychological and cultural variables according to

this theory. Personality is largely seen to be the result of learning culture. Universal temperaments associated

with males and females do not exist in practice, based on research conducted by psychological

anthropologists (for example, it was noticed that there are no universally consistent personality traits like

being hard working on the basis of being a male or a female).

Functionalism

Like historicism, functionalism focused on understanding culture from the viewpoint of the native. It stated

that empirical fieldwork is absolutely essential. Functionalists stressed that anthropologists should seek to

understand how different parts of contemporary cultures work for the well being of the individual and the

society, instead of focusing on how these parts evolved.

Society was thought to be like a biological organism with all of the parts interconnected. The theory argued

that change in one part of the system brings a change in another part of the system as well. Existing

institutional structures of any society are thought to perform indispensable functions, without which the

society could not continue.

Neo-Evolutionism

Neo-Evolution states that culture evolves in direct proportion to their capacity to harness energy. The

theory states that culture evolves as the amount of energy harnessed per capita per year increases or as the

efficiency of the means of putting energy to work increases" (Leslie White,1900-1975).

Culture = Energy x Technology

Culture is said to be shaped by environmental and technological conditions. Therefore, people facing similar

environmental challenges, are thought to develop similar technological solutions and parallel social and

political institutions.

Cultures evolve when people are able to increase the amount of energy under their control according to this

theory. Given this emphasis on energy, the role of values, ideas and beliefs is de-emphasized.

Useful Terms

Theory: a general statement about how two or more facts are related to one another.

Hypotheses: an educated hunch as to the relationship among certain variables that guides a research

project.

Evolutionism: the 19th century school of cultural anthropology, represented by Morgan and Tyler that

attempted to explain variations in cultures by the single deductive theory that they all pass through a series

of evolutionary stages.

Introduction to Cultural Anthropology SOC401

Savagery: the first amongst the three basic stages (savagery, barbarism and civilization) of cultural

evolution.

Barbarism: the middle of the three basic stages of the 19th century theory developed by Lewis Morgan that

all cultures evolve from simple to complex systems.

Civilization: a term used by anthropologists to describe any society with cities.

Suggested Readings

Students are advised to read the following chapters to develop a better understanding of the various

principals highlighted in this hand-out:

Chapter 4 in `Cultural Anthropology: An Applied Perspective' by Ferrarro and/or Chapter 14 in `Anthropology' by

Ember and Pergrine

Internet Resources

Anthropological Theories

http://www.as.ua.edu/ant/Faculty/murphy/436/anthros.htm

Use the hyperlinks on the above website to read up on the following theories for today's lecture:

Social Evolutionism

Diffusionism and Acculturation

Historicism

Functionalism

American Materialism

Cultural Materialism

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