CAREER COUNSELING:Situational Approaches, Decision Theory

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Theory and Practice of Counseling - PSY632

Lesson 42

CAREER COUNSELING

Career Counseling Theory

· A theory of career development can be defined as a conceptual system that identifies, describes,

and interrelates important factors affecting lifelong human involvement with work

Five major types (Herr & Cramer, 1984)

o The trait-factor approach

o Psychological-personality based approach

o Situational approaches

o Decision theory

o Developmental approach

The Trait-Factor Approach (Williamson)

· It is the theory of individual differences which focuses on matching of personal characteristics with

the job requirements. Accordingly, it refers to a highly cognitive process.

· The origin of trait-factor approach can be traced back to Frank Parsons. It stresses matching an

individual with a job that fits that person's talents. Hence, it works according to Parsonian equation

given below:

o Knowledge of self + Knowledge of work + counseling = ability to choose

Psychological-personality based approach

· It is based on Holland's theory that personality is the major factor influencing career choices. This

theory indicates that adopting a particular kind of work is not simply a matter of choice but is the

result of complex environmental and personal factors. Four factors are important in these

connections:

o Major assumptions of his theory are that there are basically six personality types: Realistic,

investigative, artistic, social, conventional, enterprising

o There are also six environmental categories: Realistic, investigative, artistic, social,

conventional, enterprising

o People search for suitable environment

o Interaction between the person and environment

· Client's response may be assessed on instruments, like on Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory. A

person gets a three-letter code which describes the kind of work hat person is suitable for. For

example, if a person gets a code of "RIA", it will indicate that the person is Realistic, investigative,

and artistic. The next task will be to determine the kind of jobs that are congruent with that RIA

profile, for example, architectural draftsman, and dental technician. The counselor then looks for

the congruence between personality and job requirement. He may look for the details of different

suitable jobs for that person. For that person, different books can also be consulted, like,

"Occupational Outlook Handbook" published by the US Dept. of Labour.

Situational Approaches

Emphasis is on situational factors such as location in space and time; political and social factors; ethnic,

religious, and family beliefs, and value systems. Although personal and job related problems are very

important, it is often difficult to disregard the situational factors.

Decision Theory

o The career selection is not simply a good fit between the person and the requirements of a given job,

but it actually depends on learning experiences as well as different other factors.

o It is a social learning approach developed by Krumboltz (1976)

o Factors influencing career decisions:

o Genetic endowment & special abilities

o Environmental conditions & events

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Theory and Practice of Counseling - PSY632

Learning experiences

Task approach skills

Developmental Approach

· Career decision is a lifelong process with counseling interventions depending on the person's life

stage

· Levinson's midlife transition (1977) theory indicates that people in their middle age often face many

problems regarding career counseling.

· This approach includes much of the previously mentioned approaches.

· Most influential developmental approach is that of Donald Super (1957).

· It focuses on the influence of self-concept on occupational choices. Although self-concept is

fairly stable after late adolescence, any change with time and experience make choices a

continuous process

· Built on the ideas of many developmental theorists, such as Havighurst (1953)

o Growth (0-14): self concept develops through identification toward others; needs and

fantasy are dominant early in this stage. Different behaviors, like industriousness, social

interaction, goal setting, and self direction are learned.

o Exploration (14-24): time for self examination, try-outs and occupational explorations;

o Establishment (24-44): having found an appropriate field; having made a place in the world

of work, the concern is how to hold on it.

o Maintenance (44-64): how to hold on the world of work, competition with young workers,

try to maintain status

o Decline (64 yearsdeath) selective participation, new roles and adjustments

Comprehensive Career Counseling (Crites, 1981)

· In contrast to these five theories, Crites (1981) developed his own model. It is based on the five

major approaches just discussed, the more general systems of counseling and psychotherapy, and

his own wide experience as a career counselor. He advocates that counselors make three diagnosis

of a client's career problems:

o differential (what the problems are)

o dynamic (why problems have occurred)

o decisional (how the problems are being dealt with)

o Crites employs eclectic methods in his career counseling. He uses client-centered and

developmental counseling at the beginning to identify problems. The middle stage of his process is

dominated by psychodynamic techniques, such as interpretation, to clarify how problems have

occurred. The final stage of the process uses trait-and-factor and behavioral approaches to help the

client resolve problems areas.

· Comprehensive career counseling also advocates the use of tests in working with clients.

Career Counseling Strategies

· Assessment

o Use of inventories, tests, rating scales, etc.

o Specialized training many be required for psychological testing

o Use of computers and computerized testing

· Guidance

o Information attainment and sharing

o Use of different resource books and manuals like "Directory of Occupational Titles"

(DOT)

o Published information about these jobs are available in diverse sources, like CDs, videos,

audios, books, etc.

· Work adjustment

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Theory and Practice of Counseling - PSY632

Work adjustment:

o Work adjustment is more than career choice; everyone who is unhappy with the job need

not definitely change the job. May be the person has to improve interpersonal skills,

behave differently, and change perceptions

Issues & Trends

· Educational & Economic consideration

o Low income people have fewer resources to be educated, to move to another geographical

area, etc.

· National Career & Development Association Survey conducted in USA indicated the

following:

o 44% of adults felt that schools do not devote enough attention

o 53% felt that more attention is required for people who are not college bound

o Two thirds stated that they would seek more information if they were to start over

· Racism, prejudice, and discrimination

· Occupational titles are culture, gender and class bound. Strengths and abilities of

disadvantaged people are often overlooked. Since 1970, there has been a dramatic rise in

research on and interest in the career development of women. The trend parallels the

increase in women's participation in the work force. Many people often assume that as a

group females prefer social, artistic and conventional occupations (as opposed to realistic,

investigative, and enterprising occupations for men). Only a relatively small portion of

women are pioneers who become highly committed to working in nontraditional

occupations. Counselors must be sensitive to such issues and at the same time help

individuals overcomes artificial and real barriers that prohibit them from maximizing their

potential.

School Counseling

Career counseling and education are conducted with a wide variety of individuals in diverse settings. Brown

(1985) observes that career counseling typically is offered in college counseling centers, rehabilitation

facilities, employment offices, and public schools. He thinks it could be applied with great advantage in

many other places as well, including mental health centers and private-practice offices. Because the concept

of careers encompasses the entire life span, counselors who specialized in this area find themselves working

with a full age range of clients, from young children to octogenarians.

Herr and Cramer (1992) cite numerous studies to show that during the first six years of school, many

children develop a relatively stable self-perception and make a tentative commitment to a vocation. Jesser

(1983) indicates that this awareness can be raised through activities such as field trips to local industries,

bakeries manufacturing plants, or banks.

Cole (1982) stresses that in the middle and junior high school, career guidance activities should include the

exploration of work opportunities and students' evaluation of their own strengths and weaknesses in regard

to possible future careers. Several techniques have proven quite effective in helping adolescents crystallize

ideas about careers. Some involve the use of fantasies, such as imagining a typical day in the future, an

awards ceremony, a mid-career change, or retirement. More concrete exercises might include completing an

occupational family tree to find out how present interests compare with the careers of family members.

American Counseling Association (ACA), call for a 48 hour Master's program that includes extensive

practice and internships, along with the major content areas like professional orientation, helping

relationships, counseling theories, human development theory, social and cultural foundations, group

counseling, career and lifestyle counseling, appraisal, research and evaluation, school counseling, and

consultation

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Theory and Practice of Counseling - PSY632

Types of Program Interventions

Direct Services

The basic purposes of counseling interventions in the school are to:

o Promote students' personal and social growth

o To enhance their educational and career development.

Issues appropriate for school counseling include attitudes and behaviors, peer relationships, study

skills, career planning, college selection, sexuality concerns, substance abuse, and family issues such

as abuse, divorce, death of family member, and blended families. Counseling related to educational

and career planning may often involve the administration of assessment instruments and

subsequent test interpretation.

Indirect Services

Indirect services refer to consultation and coordination.

o Consultation interventions include working with consultees (teachers, staff, and parents) to

help the consultees improve their interactions with children. Counselors in the consultant

role may use individual conferences, seminars, or training workshops to teach specific skills

or to focus on strategies for dealing with a specific problem.

o Coordination refers to the process in which the counselor helps organize and manage the

comprehensive counseling program and related services.

University Counseling

· Herr and Cramer (1992) list a number of services that a comprehensive career guidance and

counseling program in an institution of higher education attempts to provide. Among them the

important ones are:

1. Help with the selection of a major field of study

2. Offer self-assessment and self-analysis through psychological testing

3. Help students understand the world of work

4. Teaching decision making skills

5. Facilitate access to employment opportunities through career fairs

6. Meet the needs of special populations.

· In the past, campus counseling may have tended to be a rather narrow specialty, with counselors

working primarily with 18- to 22-year-olds who often had similar religious and ethnic backgrounds.

More recently, however, there has been increased diversity on most college campuses, especially in

multicultural societies. There is increased age, ethnic and racial diversity and greater numbers of

students with disabilities. Campus counseling centers in higher education, particularly in areas with

large ethnic mix, are expected to offer the full range of services.

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