BEHAVIORAL APPROACHES:Respondent Learning, Social Learning Theory

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Theory and Practice of Counseling - PSY632

LESSON 35

BEHAVIORAL APPROACHES

Overview of Behavioral Approaches

· Behavioral refers to a wide range of ideas, practices, and theories. On one end are radical

behaviorists, focusing predominantly on learning principles and avoiding any mentalist concepts,

such as thoughts. On the other end are cognitive behavior theorists, like Meichenbaum, who

emphasized mental processes in behavior. He maintained that people who act abnormally either

failed to learn the skills they need to cope with the problems of everyday living.

· Behavioral approaches are designed to change unwanted or maladaptive behavior through the

application of basic learning principals. Behavioral approaches maintain that both abnormal and

normal behaviors are learned. Good behavior is maintained by reinforcement and unwanted

behavior can be eliminated by punishment. Behavior treatment approaches are based on these

principles.

· Cognitive behavioral approaches maintain that behavior and perception play a reciprocal role in the

process of change.

· Cognitive behavioral approaches form a bridge between counselors who exclusively focus on either

cognitive or behavioral changes.

Brief Background

· Case of Albert (Watson & Raynor, 1920): In its infancy, behaviorism was advocated by Dr

J.B.Watson who advocated the use of observation for scientific study of human life. It was

followed by the experiments that human emotions can be conditioned and generalized. The case of

young Albert and laboratory rat was used to demonstrate that phobias are developed by

associations. That may serve as the basis for the development of neurosis.

· Case of Peter (Mary Cover Jones, 1924): Mary Jones maintained that the same principles can be

employed to unlearn fears, and counterconditioning is possible to overcome phobias. This

unlearning of fear by counterconditioning was demonstrated on Peter, a 3- year old.

· The idea of reciprocal inhibition was presented by Joseph Wolpe (1958) that if people are relaxed

then this relaxation can be used to inhibit anxiety. Wolpe presented the concept of systematic

desensitization.

· Became prominent during 1940s and 50s. In 1950s behavioral approach was used for resolving

client's problems and was developed as a systematic psychological endeavor. Various researchers,

like skinner, Bandura, etc. played a dominant role in its development.

· It was recognized as an alternative treatment approach in the 1960's.

· Results of animal experiments were used to employ the same experiments with humans for

reducing anxiety in South Africa (Wolpe & Lazarus) and in Maudsley Hospital, London (Eysenck).

· John Krumboltz (1966) is credited with popularizing behaviorism in counseling. Krumboltz drew

upon Bandura's earlier work and in doing so revolutionalized the counseling profession. In general,

behaviorists believe that learning and development occur in one of three ways:

By the 1980s, behavioral approaches had generally split into three main categories:

· Classical/ respondent learning

· Operant conditioning

· Social modeling

Cognitive-behavioral approaches also emerged in the 1980s

Suitable Clients for cognitive behavior approaches

According to Kormier and Hackney (1993), the suitable clients for cognitive behavioral approaches are:

· Predominantly goal-oriented with a need for achievement and results

· Action-oriented with a need to do something

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Interested in changing either a discrete response or a limited number of behaviors

Respondent Learning

· Pavlov's classical conditioning is the best example of respondent learning, which occurs due to

association between two stimuli.

· "Psychotherapy by Reciprocal Inhibition" by Joseph Wolpe in 1958 introduced systematic desensitization.

A new response, opposite to feared object, is attached with the feared stimulus.

· In respondent learning, a person does not have to be an active participant and learning occurs due

to an association between two stimuli. This refers to conditioning of involuntary responses. This

idea is consistent with the original concept of behaviorism -application of S-R psychology. Several

other important behaviorists worked further to propagate these ideas, e.g., Guthrie, Hull,

Moreover, Miller, etc. Phobias, aversion are created in this way. Same principles of association are

applied for unlearning and learning fears.

Figure 1, given below, illustrates Pavlov's famous conditioning experiments on dogs:

Operant conditioning

· Based on the assumption that voluntary behaviors are influenced by consequences.

· Skinner (1953) criticized psychoanalysis as involving "explanatory fictions" and treating behaviors

as symptoms instead of behaviors.

· He suggested for a need of applied behavior analysis, soon after Journal of Applied Behavior

Analysis started in 1968.

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Operant conditioning is consistent with radical behaviorism that with the exception of genetic

influence, behavior is controlled by environmental events. This viewpoint maintained that thoughts

do not have a causal effect on behavior. However, contrary to classical conditioning, it emphasizes

the individual, and conditioning is of voluntary responses.

· The basic idea is to reinforce the desired behaviors and withhold reinforcement for, or punish,

undesired behaviors.

· By using operant conditioning principles of reward and punishment, retarded children are taught to

care for selves. Similarly schizophrenics have been helped to behave more rationally.

· The significance of rewards/reinforcers varies for different people and different ages. The

following may serve as reinforcers:

· Attention and praise

· Token economy (people can exchange tokens for rewards)

· Food items

· Money

In normal life, people will repeat behavior that brings recognition, fame, praise, or meets physical needs.

Social Learning Theory

· This approach which maintains that people acquire new knowledge by observing others is based on

classical, operant and cognitive principles.

· Modeling involves learning by watching and imitating the behaviors of others.

· Emphasizes the self-regulation of behavior and deemphasizes the importance of external

reinforcers.

· This approach maintains that some responses are determined by paired experiences, others are

influenced by environmental consequences, whereas cognitive mediation guides the acquisition and

regulation of behavior. Hence it is possible that even without engaging in that behavior, it can still

be learned.

· Bandura (1977) indicates in Principles of Behavior Modification that people are more likely to learn from

and imitate the similar models. Moreover, behaviors from symbolic models (as shown in films,

commercials, books, etc.) are also learned.

Distinguishing Features

Interchangeable terms or synonyms are observational learning, vicarious learning, and imitation.

Incorporates principles from classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and cognitive behavior.

The major advantage of social and observational learning is that behaviors are learned in less time

and thus one is able to save time, energy and efforts.

The approach maintains that learning is neither only driven by internal forces, nor is just passively

reacting to the world. In fact, both the agent and object influence the environment and learning can

occur in the absence of reinforcers.

It has practical implications, for example, dysfunctional behavior is also learned through modeling;

children learn about aggression watching aggressive models.

For observational learning to take place, one:

· must attend to the model

· must retain the information

· must perform the modeled behavior

View of Human Nature

Despite the great diversity of thought among behaviorists, certain characteristics can be identified as basic

to the overall approach.

These common characteristics are basic to overall behavioral approach (Rimm & Cunningham, 1985):

· Concentrate on behavioral processes

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Emphasis is on "here and now" rather than "then and there"

All behavior is learned

Learning can be effective in changing maladaptive behavior

Focus on setting-up well-defined counseling goals

Importance of obtaining empirical evidence & scientific support

Role of the Counselor

· The client learns, relearn, unlearn, and in this procedure counselor has to act as a teacher. May even

instruct or supervise support people. Counselor functions as a consultant, teacher, adviser,

reinforcer, and facilitator.

· Social learning counselor serves as a model, while counselor with operant and respondent learning

approach acts like a teacher.

· Rarely will use paper and pencil tests, most employ client assessment devices measuring behavior

and action. Often describe their clients according to DSM-IV for categorizing people according to

the behaviors they display many of which are listed in DSM-IV.

Goals

The goals of behavioral approaches are similar to other approaches - making people more adjusted by

eliminating maladaptive behavior. The following are main goals of behavioral approaches:

· To modify or eliminate the maladaptive behaviors

· To help them acquire healthy, constructive ways of acting

· To replace unproductive actions with productive ways of responding

Steps in Achieving Goal

Blackham and Siberman (1971) suggested the following steps in the achievement of goals given above.

· Define a problem

· Take a developmental history

· Establish specific goals

· Determine the best methods for change

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