IMAGERY:Skill Level of the Athletes, Time Factors and Mental Practice

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Sport Psychology(psy407)

Lesson 25

IMAGERY

Successful athletes use imagery and visualization to their advantage. Not all athletes are able to verbally

describe exactly how they use imagery, but some can. Some great athletes who have commented on the use

of imagery in preparing for competition include Michael Jordan in basketball, Chris Evert in tennis and

Nancy Kerrigan in figure skating. Imagery has been successful for great athletes.

Imagery is a cognitive-behavioral intervention technique. This topic will be discussed in great detail over the

next three lectures. The topic is divided into eight sections, which include:

Defining imagery

Mental practices as a form of imagery

Theories of why imagery works

Imagery perspective and sensory mode

Measurement of imagery

Conceptual models for studying imagery

Developing imagery skills

Cognitive-behavioral interventions using imagery and relaxation

Defining Imagery

Imagery has been defined as "using all the senses to re-create an experience in the mind".

An expansion of this brief definition clarifies that (a) an image can be created in the mind in the absence of

any external stimulus (b) an image may involve one or all of the senses (c) an image is created from

information stored in the sensory register, working memory, or long-term memory.

Imagery has been identified as one of the most important topics in cognitive science. Two general theories

of imagery have evolved;

a. Pictorialist

b. Descriptionist

The pictorialists state that when we imagine a scene in our mind's eye, we are scanning an actual image that

has somehow formed in our brain. The descriptionist argues that there is no such thing as a mental image.

That is, when we imagine a physical scene in our mind's eye, we are not really seeing an internal image, but

the graphic and detailed nature of our language makes it seem so. Our thoughts, as it were, actually

manufacture an image so clear that we think we are seeing one.

Regardless of whether the pictorialist or the descriptionist perspective is most accurate, the images are very

real to us. Imagery is the language of the brain. In a real sense, the brain cannot tell the difference between

an actual physical event and the vivid imagery of the same event. For this reason, imagery can be used by

the brain to provide powerful repetition, elaboration, intensification, and preservation of important athletic

sequences and skills.

The powerful effects of images and thoughts are highlighted by a study reported by Hale and Whitehouse

(1998). They presented skilled soccer players with videos of critical game situations in which either the word

"challenge" or the word "pressure" was flashed on the screen. The word "pressure" resulted in an increase

in self-reported anxiety and a decrease in self-confidence compared to the presentation of the word

"challenge." The images we see influence the emotions we feel, which in turn influence how we perform.

Sport Psychology(psy407)

Mental Practice as a Form of Imagery

Mental practice literature provides evidence that imagery is an effective cognitive-behavioral process for

enhancing learning and performance of motor skills. Literature review concludes that mental practice is

more effective than no practice. Mental practice used in a complementary fashion with physical practice

often yields the best results. The literature suggests that in addition to physically practicing a sport skill, the

athlete should spend a small amount of time rehearsing execution of the skill in her mind. Mental practice

occurs prior to actual physical practice (mental rehearsal), or it can occur at a time when actual physical

practice is not possible (e.g., while traveling, in the locker room, while resting). Research with mental

practice has also revealed several principles that enhance the effectiveness of mental practice. These

principles are:

Skill Level of the Athletes

An important finding associated with mental practice is that advanced performers benefit from mental

practice to a much greater extent than beginners. Research conducted on high school boys showed that

mental practice was almost as effective as physical practice for advanced players, but physical practice was

far superior to mental practice for beginners.

In other words, a coach or a teacher should not expect mental practice to be effective with athletes who are

unskilled in their sports. The more skillful they are, the more useful mental practice will be for them.

Cognitive Component of the Skill

Mental practice is most effective for activities that require some thinking and planning (Hird, Landers,

Thomas & Horan, 1991; Ryan & Simons, 1981). Playing golf would be an example of task that has a large

cognitive component. You need to workout which sort of swing, or which club will provide the shot you

desire.

Mental practice is less effective in a motor task that has a small cognitive component. A bench press in

weight lifting would be an example of a motor skill that would seem to have a small cognitive component.

Time Factors and Mental Practice

When it comes to mental practice, more is not necessarily better. Using basketball task, Etnier and Landers

(1996) demonstrated that when an athlete hold physical practice constant, mentally practicing for one to

three minutes is more beneficial than mentally practicing for five to seven minutes. In this same study it was

also demonstrated that mental practice may be more beneficial than mental practice following physical

practice. This gives greater credence to the use of mental rehearsal immediately prior to competition.

References

Cox, H. Richard. (2002). Sport Psychology: Concepts and Applications. (Fifth Edition). New York: McGraw-

Hill Companies

Lavallec. D., Kremer, J., Moran, A., & Williams. M. (2004) Sports Psychology: Contemporary Themes. New

York: Palgrave Macmillan Publishers

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