CONDUCTING RESEARCH IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY:Evaluate Ethics

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CONDUCTING RESEARCH IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY RESEARCH PROCESS, DESIGNS AND METHODS (CONTINUED) >>

Social Psychology (PSY403)

Lesson 04

CONDUCTING RESEARCH IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY:

Aims:

To make students understand how to conduct social psychology research using diverse scientific

methodologies.

Objectives:

Describe empirical research and scientific method

Discuss basic steps in conducting social psychology research

RESEARCH PROCESS

Step 1: Selection of research question

Sternberg (1997) indicates that some questions are simply not worth asking. He suggests that we should ask

several questions before deciding the question is good one or not:

Is my research Question a Good One

Why this question be scientifically important?

What is the scope of this question?

What are the likely outcomes if I carry out this question?

Contribution to knowledge?

Why would anyone be interested in the results obtained by asking and answering this question?

2. Develop a theory & hypothesis

STEP 2: DEVELOP A THEORY AND HYPOTHESES

The questions of interest usually revolve around whether some phenomenon can be explained by a

particular principle or theory. A theory is an organized system of ideas that seeks to explain why two or

more events are related. What makes a good theory depends on a number of factors.

The most salient factor to the working scientist is the predictive accuracy of the theory: can it reliably

predict behavior? A second necessary factor is internal coherence-there should not be any logical

inconsistencies or unexplained coincidences among any of the theoretical ideas. A third characteristic of a

good theory is that it should be economical, meaning that it only contains the principles or concepts

necessary to explain the phenomenon in question and no more. Finally, a fourth and very important quality

in a good theory is fertility -- the ability to fire the imagination of other scientists so that the ideas in the

theory are tested and extended to a wide variety of social behavior.

The way that scientists determine the predictive accuracy of a theory is by formulating hypotheses.

Hypotheses are specific propositions or expectations about the nature of things derived from a theory --

they are the logical implications of the theory. According to Stanovich (1988), theories that have withstood

the test of time have had a lot of hypotheses confirmed.

Example:

Theory: Exposure to a lot of TV violence is detrimental to children's social development

Hypothesis: Individuals who watch a great deal of TV violence during childhood will be more physically

aggressive in adulthood than individual who watch little TV violence

Step 3: Variables and Operational definitions are very precise descriptions of how the variables have

been quantified so that they can be measured.

In all scientific methods, social psychologists seek to determine the nature of the relationship between two

or more factors, called variables because they are things that can be measured and that can vary. Two types

Social Psychology (PSY403)

of variables are used in hypothesis: dependent & independent variables. When scientists describe their

variables, they do so by using operational definitions.

Examples of translating Concepts into Operations

"Absence makes the heart grow fonder"

"Media violence increases aggression"

We need to transform our conceptual variables into operational variables. For example, we have to clearly

define what we mean by "absence" and "growing fonder", etc.

Example 2:

Example from Bandura's study (1965)

Exposure to successful aggressive models induces aggressive behaviour in the observer.

Hypothesis: Children who watch a model are either reinforced or given no consequence for being

aggressive will be more likely to imitate the model than when the model is punished for being aggressive.

Operational Definitions:

Reinforcement: the model being given candy and soft drinks along with words of praise for a superb

performance.

Punishment:

Another adult shaking a menacing finger at the aggressive model and saying, "Hey, you big bully. You quit

picking on that clown. I won't tolerate it."

Relationship between concept, hypothesis, and operational definition

Table 1 illustrates the relationship between theory, hypothesis and operational

Relationship between theories, hypothesis, and

Step 4: Research Methods

operational definition

After developing a theory

and hypotheses, researchers

must next select a scientific

method that allows the

hypotheses to be tested in a

way that minimizes error

and leads to dependable

generalizations. The three

primary scientific methods

used by social psychologist

are observational,

correlational, and

experimental.

1. Correlational

2. Observational

3. Experimental

Step 5: Evaluate Ethics

Conducting research always involves a consideration between the values of doing the research versus the

impact on subjects: "cost/benefit analysis"

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American Psychological Association requires the following requirements for conducting a research:

· Informed consent: voluntary participation with full understanding of the possible risk factors

involved

· Anonymity: when neither the researcher nor the reader can identify a given response with a given

respondent

· Protection from harm: Put respondent's well-being first

· Confidentiality: when the researcher can identify a given person's response but not to do so

publicly.

· Minimize deception: Deception is usually essential in order not to alter the respondents' responses;

Deception cannot be used about aspects of research that would affect participant's willingness to

participate.

· Debriefing: interviewing subjects to learn about their experience of participation.

Communicate results of study

Milgram's Experiment:

Migram's experiment published in 1963 provided a very controversial experiment regarding ethical

issues. The article was entitled: "Be a good boy & do as u r told to do"

In the 1960s and 1970s, the issue of research ethics was upper-most in the minds of social

psychologists because of a few controversial studies that appeared to put participants at risk for

psychological harm (Milgram, 1963; Zimbardo, 1972). The most controversial of these studies were

Stanley Milgram's obedience experiments, in which volunteers agreed to act as teachers in a learning

experiment that in actuality was a study of obedience.

Although this study and others of its kind asked important questions about social behavior, serious

concerns were raised about whether the significance of the research topics justified exposing participants to

potentially harmful psychological consequences.

Figure 1: Research participant

working on shock generator

Stanley Milgram wanted

some explanations for the horrors of World War II when six million Jews, gypsies, and

homosexuals were slaughtered by the Nazis. He designed an experiment to measure obedience to

know why Germans were particularly obedient.

Basic design was to order a subject to administer an electric shock to another person and to see

how far they would go with this procedure.

Created an impressive `shock generator' with 30 switches marked clearly in 15 volt increments

from 15 to 450 volts; verbal labels from slight shock to danger (severe). The phoney generator had

buzzers, lights that flashed and dials that moved; all appeared authentic.

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He found out that obedience to authority was not a feature of German culture but a seemingly

universal feature of human behaviour. He published an article "Be a good boy and do as you are

told"

This experiment, although no shocks given, the victim's cries were taped, was very controversial as

it did not satisfy ethical considerations of informed consent. procedure created extraordinary

tension; participants appeared very stressed which showed up with their nervous laugh, tension, fits

of laugh

Of 40 subjects all obeyed up to 300 volts, at which 5 refused and 26 continued to the end.

The primary criticism on such experiments is that such deception could lead to a loss of trust in social

scientists

Analysis of Milgram's Study

Diana Baumrind's criticism regarding psychological harms to the paticipants (1993): She found it

difficult to understand the similarity between Hitler's Germnay and Milgram's lab. Hitler's

subordinates thought that they were doing the great job finishing the subhumans, while this

experiment according to Diana had no parallel with that situation.

Milgram's Reply:

Experiment investigated a very important issue

Procedure was defined to the subject in a way that supported their decision to disobey

Subjects were debriefed

84% were glad to participate

75% indicated that they had learned something of personal importance

Subjects received a written report

Milgram's Conclusion

"This experiment strengthened my belief that man should avoid harm to his fellow men even at the risk of

violating authority"

Current Ethical Guidelines

In 1974 the U.S. government established institutional review boards (IRBs) for research involving human

participants. These reviewing bodies, which are composed of scientists, medical professionals, clergy, and

other community members, who make sure that the welfare of human participants is protected.

In 1982, the American Psychological Association published guidelines focusing on the risk/benefit ratio.

Step 6: Collect Data

When the IRB has granted approval, it is time to collect data from your sample. A sample is a

group of people who are selected to participate in a given study. The people who are selected to participate

in the study come from a population, which consists of all the members of an identifiable group from

which a sample is drawn. The closer a sample is in representing the population, the greater confidence

researchers have in generalizing their findings beyond the sample.

Regarding the data collected from your sample of participants, there are two broad categories: qualitative

and quantitative. Qualitative data exists in a nonnumeric form, such as a scientist's narrative report of a

conversation between two people. In contrast, quantitative data is numerical.

A sample is a group of people who are selected to participate in a research study.

Social Psychology (PSY403)

Population consists of all the members of an identifiable group from which a sample is drawn. The people

who are selected to participate in the study come from a population

Population can be events, people or things

Figure 2: The Relationship Between Population, Parameters, Samples & Statistics

Some important points about

T h e R e la tio n s h ip B e tw e e n P o p u la tio n ,

population and sample:

P a r a m e te rs , S a m p le s & S ta tis tics

1. Population is the total number

of subjects, events, or objects

2. Parameters are population

Sam p le

characteristics

(n =3 0 )

3. Sample is a subset of the

population

4. Statistics are estimates of

P opu lation (N = 1 0 00 )

S tatistics,

population parameters.

e.g., m ean ,

5. It is important to know the

variance

ability to generalize from a

S tatistics are estim ates of

sample to the population which

P aram eters, e.g., tru e m ean,

& varian ce of p op u lation

critically depends on the

representativeness of the sample. Individuals in a population differ from each other, e.g., one

population may have 40% males, and 60% females, while the other could have a ratio of 70 to 30.

A sample is representative of the population to the extent it exhibits the same distribution of

characteristics as the population.

Sampling Strategies

Probability samples: when each and every element has an equal chance of being included

Simple random: Simple Random:All items in selected population stand an equal chance of

inclusion in the sample; subjects usually chosen by random numbers

Systematic random: Sample selected according to some regular pattern; every tenth or so.

Stratified: include quotas of population/ subgroups (strata), gender, ethnic distribution, etc. to

ensue an adequate sample of each. Usually population parameters are obtained from census.

Representative random sampling of all strata must be taken.

Cluster: initially a convenient group is selected but this is then sub sampled randomly. Any

generalization outside the population actually sampled should be cautious.

Hybrid or "multistage selection": Initially based on a cluster of potential sampling frames (several

areas, or institutions). One of them is randomly chosen, then individuals are randomly chosen from

within the chosen sampling frame (institution, e.g.). Generalization outside actually sampled

population avoided.

Reference

1. Franzoi, S.L. (2006). Social Psychology. New York: McGraw Hill. Chapter 2.

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