THE NATURE OF PERSONALITY THEORY:Objectives of Personality Psychology

PERSONALITY MEASUREMENT:Observational Procedures, Rating Scales >>

Personality Psychology PSY 405

Lesson 1

THE NATURE OF PERSONALITY THEORY

"What sort of creatures are we?"

Ever since the beginning of recorded history, the most significant riddle or question to be answered is the

"What sort of creatures are we?" A great many avenues have been explored, with an enormous variety of

concepts employed yet a satisfactory answer still is not there.

1-Individual differences - Of the several billion people who presently inhabit the earth, no two individuals

are exactly alike even the identical twins.

One important reason for the difficulty in getting a clear answer is that human beings come in many shapes

and sizes and behave in exceedingly complex ways. There are so many differences to be accounted for

biological, physical, genetics, social and psychological. The vast differences among them have made it

difficult, if not impossible, to identify what they share in common as members of the human race.

Personality psychology is concerned with the differences among the people.

Example:

The convicted terrorist or murderer, the priest, the corrupt politician.

Thus it is hard to imagine what "human nature" or characteristics or traits these fellow human beings have

in common, and when we expand our horizons to include people of other cultures, we find even greater

diversity in values, aspirations, and styles of life.

Psychology along with Astrology, theology, philosophy, and the life sciences are but a few of the many

disciplines that the quest to understand human nature. Some of these avenues have proved to be dead ends,

while others are just beginning to flourish.

Today the problem to understand human nature is more pressing than ever, huge population explosion,

global unrest, ecological pollution, racial prejudice, poverty are brought about by the behavior of people. It

may not be overstating the case, therefore, to say that the quality of human life in the future, indeed our

very survival, may depend upon an increased understanding of human nature. Psychology is deeply

committed to this undertaking.

Objectives of Personality Psychology

The science of psychology is directly concerned with the problem of understanding human personality

within the framework of the science of psychology.

Scientifically based concepts and methods of personality psychology will ultimately prove to be of most

value in understanding the complex nature of human behavior.

(1) To have a general, integrated and clear concept about Personality

(2) To understand personality assessment

(3) To identify several important Theories of Personality

(4) To identify key themes in Theories of Personality.

What makes personality psychology a science?

The process of converting speculations or opinions or beliefs about human nature into concepts that can be

studied and tested empirically it is a process beset by many hazards; indeed, efforts to establish a "science

of persons". It may seem fascinating to try to gain insight into the causes of our behavior and development.

Psychologists resist to objectifying personality within the field of psychology, because it undermines

human uniqueness and complexity instead, they concentrate on the qualities of human beings such as

literature, art, history and religion which may each provide valuable insights into human behavior.

A second objective of personality psychology is to help people live their lives more fully and satisfyingly

by finding ways to promote more healthy patterns of growth. These efforts include new forms of

Personality Psychology PSY 405

psychotherapy, various special learning programs, and changes in the psychological environment intended

to permit people to develop to their full potential.

Theories of Personality

Different systems of consistent constellations of concepts called theories of personality. Each theory is

about human nature and the goal of each theory is the understanding of the diversity and complexity of the

whole person functioning in the real world. Theory refers to unsubstantiated hypothesis or speculation

concerning reality that is not definitely known but when a theory has confirmatory data or evidence it is a

fact.

1. A theory is useful when it can efficiently generate predictions and propositions

2. A theory should contain two parts a cluster of relevant assumptions systematically related to

each other and a set of empirical definitions

What purpose do theories of personality serve?

Theories of personality represent elaborate speculation or hypotheses about why people behave as they do

and they serve the following functions

1. A personality theory is descriptive. In other words, a theory provides a meaningful framework (i.e. a

kind of map) for simplifying and integrating all that is known about a related set of events. For example,

without the benefit of theory, it would be very difficult to explain why 5-year-old boy has a romantic

attraction to his mother along with undue resentment toward his father. Armed with a theory that posits the

universality of these emotions at a certain stage of personality development (along with a rationale of their

emergence), but at least we would be consistent in making sense of these feelings in children. A good

personality theory, then, provides a meaningful context within which human behavior can be consistently

described and interpreted.

2. A theory should not only describe past and present events but also predict future ones. The second

function of a personality theory is therefore to provide a basis for the prediction of events and outcomes

that have not yet occurred.

3 This purpose clearly implies that a theory's concepts must be testable and capable of being confirmed or

disconfirmed. For example, a theory should furnish a basis for predicting specific changes in Raymond's

behavior as a function of parental treatment. What will happen if his mother actively encourages these

feelings? Not only should such general predictions be possible but, ideally, the concepts of a theory should

be formulated to permit rigorous and precise empirical testing. A good personality theory directly

stimulates psychological research. Conversely, the scientific value of theories that are untestable is still

unknown.

What does it means to be a human being?

4. Personality theorists are people, and, like the rest of us, they hold divergent views about human nature.

Some theorists, for example, believe that human actions have their roots in unconscious motives whose true

nature is outside the individual's awareness and whose sources lie deeply buried in the distant past. Others

believe that people are reasonably aware of their real motives and that their behavior is primarily a result of

present conditions. Whatever each theorist's specific beliefs may be, we contend that personality theorists

have different basic assumptions about human nature, and that their theories can be distinguished from one

another on this basis (Abraham Maslow and Sigmund Freud) - Our point is simply that the foundations of a

personality theory are rooted in the basic assumptions of the theorist; a theory's implications about human

nature, i.e., about what humans are? or what it means to be a human being?

How we can evaluate Personality Theories?

Given the sheer number of alternative personality theories, how do we evaluate the relative merits of each?

The most puzzling question that comes to your mind is what criteria can be used to evaluate a theory? We

believe that six major criteria can be employed to evaluate personality theories and each personality theory

should satisfy each of these criteria to some extent in order to receive a positive and satisfactory evaluation.

We will describe these criteria, compare and contrast the theories in terms of these six criteria.

Personality Psychology PSY 405

1. Verifiability:

A theory is positively evaluated to the degree that its concepts lend themselves to verification by

independent investigators. This means that a theory must be stated in such a way that its concepts are

clearly, explicitly defined and logically related to one another so that the theory can be empirically tested.

This requirement has been exceedingly difficult for personologists to demonstrate even a moderate amount

of empirical validation for their theoretical positions. A good theory should be empirically testable, leading

to modification of the theory if necessary.

2. Heuristic Value:

The degree to which a theory directly stimulates a research. A theory by translating its core concepts into a

form of operationalization can allow for relevant research activity. Personality theories differ immensely in

their capacity to fulfill this goal. Some of the most provocative theoretical formulations of personality

(e.g., Maslow's self-actualizing theory) are practically devoid of empirical support. This state of affairs

usually results from the theorist's failure to define his or her concepts operationally i.e., in manner whereby

they can readily be subjected to empirical test.

3. Internal Consistency: This criterion stipulates that a theory should not contradict itself that is a good

theory is internally consistent way. On the whole, theories of personality reasonably satisfy this standard,

4. Parsimony (simple):

A theory may also be judged on the basis of the number of concepts it requires to explain events within its

domain. The law of parsimony states that the preferred explanation is the one which demands the fewest

number of concepts, i.e., is most economical.

5. Comprehensiveness:

This criterion refers to the range and diversity of phenomena encompassed by a theory. The more

comprehensive a personality theory is the more behavioral ground it covers. The theorist should include

behavioral events such as biological, emotional, cognitive, social, and cultural in human behavior. At the

same time, it must be recognized that no present theory can account for all human functioning.

6. Functional Significance:

Finally, a theory may be evaluated on the basis of how useful it is in helping people to understand everyday

human behavior. All of us are interested in knowing more about ourselves and other people. Indeed,

knowledge of the personal and social insights provided by personality theorists can greatly help one's

understanding and appreciation of human nature.

What are the influences Personality development?

1. Genetics

2. Environment ( learning)

3. Culture and Society

4. Self awareness

5. Traits

6. Unconscious Mechanisms

The Meaning of "Personality"

Personality has many meanings, even within psychology there is disagreement about the meaning of the

term. In fact, there may be as many different meanings of the term "personality" as there are psychologists

who have tried to define it

We often hear remarks that some people have a pleasing personality while others have charming

and fascinating personality.

Some political leaders have charismatic personality while others have repulsive and annoying

personality.

Personality Psychology PSY 405

So the question comes to your mind that

In our daily language hear such comments as "A lot of personality" and "B has a great personality and C

has more personality."

Personality has also been viewed as the individual's most striking or dominant characteristics. In this sense,

a person may be said to have an "aggressive personality" or a "shy personality," meaning that his or her

most distinctive attribute appears to be aggressiveness or shyness. So personality refers to the overall

impression that an individual makes on others, that is, a sum total or constellation of characteristics that are

typical of the individual and thus observable in various social settings. When one describes T as having a

"terrific personality," one may be referring to his pleasant disposition, his sincerity, or his willingness to

help others.

What is personality?

Personality refers to characteristic ways a person behaves and thinks. So, personality refers to the overall

impression that an individual makes on others, that is, a sum total or constellation of characteristics that are

typical of the individual and thus observable in various social settings.

Example:

A is shy and timid

B is sensitive and gets upset easily

C is suspicious of friends and family

D is confident and successful

The word "personality" in English is derived from the Latin persona It the masks worn by theatrical players

in ancient Greek dramas term came to encompass the actor's roles as well. Thus, personality is the public

personality that people display to those around them. This view is similar with that of the layperson who

equates personality with charm, social poise, popularity, physical attractiveness, and a host of other socially

desirable characteristics.

A quick overview of the meaning of personality in psychology can be gained by briefly considering the

views offered by a few recognized theorists in the field. For instance, Carl Rogers views personality in

terms of self, an organized, permanent, subjectively perceived entity which is at the very heart of all our

experiences. Gordon Allport defines personality as that which an individual really is, an internal

"something" that guides and directs all human activity. For Erik Erikson, life proceeds in terms of a series

of psychosocial crises, and personality is a function of their outcome. George Kelly regards personality as

the individual's unique way of "making sense" out of life experiences. Still another conception is that of

Sigmund Freud who described the structure of personality as composed of three elements- the id, ego, and

superego.

These different conceptions clearly indicate that the meaning of personality in psychology extends far

beyond the original "superficial social image" concept. It refers to something much more essential and

enduring about a person. Beyond this basic point of agreement, theoretical definitions of personality have

other features in common.

1. Most definitions depict personality as some kind of hypothetical structure or organization. In

other words, personality is an abstraction based on inferences derived from behavioral observation.

2. Most definitions stress the need to understand the meaning of individual differences. With the

word "personality," the palpable uniqueness in all individuals is indicated.

3. Most definitions emphasize the importance of viewing personality in terms of a life history, or

developmental perspective and social experiences, and changing environmental circumstances. --

Personality Psychology as a Field of Study

What distinguishes personality psychology from the other psychological domains is its attempt to

synthesize and integrate the principles of other areas of psychology. For example, in the psychology of

perception, the basic structures and processes underlying how people perceive and interpret the world

Personality Psychology PSY 405

around them are examined. The personality psychology as a field of study combines these principles in an

effort to understand human behavior.

To be comprehensive, a personality theory must incorporate all the principles of general psychology that

influence or determine an individual's behavior and experience fall within the domain of the personologist,

a term that has been used to designate both personality theorists and researchers (Murray, 1938).

In light of all this, it is evident that no other area of psychology attempts to cover as much territory as the

field of personality the focus of study has been nothing less than the total individual. Given such an

ambitions goal, YOU can rightfully expect the study of personality to be an exciting and challenging

undertaking.

Modern Personality Theory

Current conceptions of personality have been shaped by many events. To see personality theory in a

meaningful perspective, it is necessary to examine some of the more important historical and contemporary

influences upon it.

Historical Factors: The Past

Of the many historical forces that have coalesced to produce contemporary psychology, four appear to have

been direct and major influences upon current personality theory- European Clinical Medicine,

behaviorism, psychometrics and gestalt psychology. After examining these historical factors, more

contemporary sources of influence upon personality will be discussed.

1-European Clinical Medicine how ever the clinical medicine of eighteenth- and nineteenth-century Europe

(particularly France) had the most direct influence upon the structure of twentieth-century personality

theory. The European clinical medicine of that time primarily dealt with the understanding, classification,

and treatment of mental disorders.

Based upon the French physician Philippe Pinel (1745-1826) was able to

conceive of psychotic personality disorders in terms of brain dysfunction.

This physicalistic conception of psychoses set in motion a scientifically based

attempt to classify psychotic disorders, as illustrated in the work of the German

physician Emil Kraepeline (1856-1926), as well as a widespread series of

humanitarian reforms in the treatment of psychotics.

European clinical medicine, then, furnished the intellectual climate in which

Freud was to develop his unique psychoanalytic techniques and classify

personality disorders, and its therapeutic approaches to the treatment of

disturbed persons, has left and indelible imprint upon modern personality

theory.

2- Psychometrics:

Psychometrics, or psychological measurement, has significantly helped to make a science of psychology.

Before the advent of psychometrics, it was not possible, or even conceivable, to measure aspects of human

psychological functioning, e.g., intelligence, aptitudes, interests, motives, personality traits. Now, within

certain limitations, such measurements can be obtained. When psychological testing was introduced, the

field of personality acquired the potential for quantification and measurement of its concepts. In brief,

psychometrics made possible meaningful research in personality.

Consider a personologists who wishes to study the relationship between need for affiliation or friendship

and a person's vocational interests. Without psychometric tools, he or she would have to be content with

simply speculating that people with a high affiliation need are probably interested in occupations that

permit close interpersonal contact. But his could never be known

for sure. With current psychological measurement techniques, a personality researcher can quantify both

degree of their relationship in the group studied.

3- Behaviorism:

Personality Psychology PSY 405

Behaviorism as a school of psychology was founded in 1913 by the American psychologist John B. Watson

(1878-1958). It became an extraordinarily influential movement in American psychology and, although the

days of psychology schools are distinctly over, its pervasive influences are still quite evident today. The

historical roots of behaviorism are deep. Watson and Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849- 1936) who was most

influential in setting the stage for the focus of contemporary behaviorist approaches to personality.

Stimulated by such giants as Edwin Guthrie (1896-1959), Clark Hull (1884-1952), and Edward Tolman

(1886-1959), all of whom developed their own elaborate theories of learning, and their imprint upon

personality theory, therapy, and research has been great. Social learning theories such as that of Albert

Bandura also reflect the influence of behaviorism.

4- Gestalt Psychology:

The German noun gestalt cannot precisely be translated into English. The closest approximations of its

meanings are the words "form," "figure," "shape," "configuration," "structure." Gestalt psychology as a

distinct school was founded in 1912 by the German psychologist Max Wertheimer (1880-1943). His

ingenious and varied experiments upon the holistic nature of perception stimulated Kurt Koffka (1886-

1941) and Wolfgang Kohler (1887-1967), two of his experimental subjects and colleagues, to develop and

extend the principles of gestalt, psychology to psychological spheres other than perception. For example,

where the behaviorists emphasized elements, the gestaltists stressed wholes.

Gestalt psychology, then, stresses the impossibility of understanding complex psychological processes by

attempting to break them down into their component parts. The whole is greater than, and different from,

the sum of its parts.

Many psychologists view personality as an organized dynamic whole that cannot be reduced to the sum of

its parts. Holistic conceptions of this type are an integral part of the theories of Alfred Adler, Gordon

Allport, Abraham Maslow, and Carl Rogers.

What's happening at present?

While the shape of today's personality field has been determined by historical factors, new directions in

personality will result from events occurring now. Any discipline that studies the behavior of people must,

to remain open to factors that have direct implications for understanding human nature. In a world of

constant change, these factors are numerous indeed.

1- Cross-cultural research has forced a reevaluation of the generalizability of psychological

findings from one culture and/or subculture to another; what holds true for American

college students may not apply to young people in the other part of the world.

2- Because of recent increased interest in the study of cognitive, or thinking, processes,

human conceptual abilities are becoming a more salient aspect of personality theory.

3- The factor of constant social change is forging new directions for personality theory

and research, while computer technology (Loehlin, 1968) continues to open up new and

exciting research possibilities.

4- On a broader scale, the person revolution of the 1970s has brought about a deeper

awareness of the relativity of values, life-styles, and the meaning of life itself. These are

but a few of the diverse contemporary influences upon the personality field; many forces,

both within and outside the boundaries of psychology, will continue to shape its

development.

There have been and will continue to be important developments in many areas and

disciplines that are highly relevant to an understanding of the nature of human beings.

Summary

Theories of personality represent organized attempts to contribute significantly to our understanding of

human nature from within the province of psychology.

There is presently, no general agreement within the field on a substantive definition of the term

"personality." One's definition of personality depends upon one's theory of personality, and personality

Personality Psychology PSY 405

theories can be evaluated in terms of six criteria: verifiability, heuristic value, internal consistency,

parsimony, comprehensiveness, and functional significance. The field of personality is distinguished within

psychology by its attempt to synthesize and integrate important principles from all areas of psychology.

The emergence and development of the personality field is firmly rooted in the historical factors that have

shaped modern psychology. Four major historical factors-European clinical medicine, psychometrics,

behaviorism and gestalt psychology- appear to have been particularly important influences upon person-

ality theory as it exists today. Significant contemporary sources of influence upon this field can be found

both within and outside of psychology.

Personality theories are founded upon certain basic assumptions about the nature of human beings.

Differences among personality theorists on these assumptions constitute the principal basis for the

differences among their respective personality theories. In this chapter, nine basic assumptions concerning

human nature were specified and discussed: freedom-determinism, rationality-irrationality, holism-

elementalism, constitutionalism-environmentalism, changeability-unchangeability, subjectivity-objectivity,

proactivity-reactivity, homeostasis-hetrostasis, and knowability-unknowability.

Psychometrics, or psychological measurement, has significantly helped to make a science of psychology.

Before the advent of psychometrics, it was not possible, or even conceivable, to measure aspects of human

psychological functioning, e.g., intelligence, aptitudes, interests, motives, personality traits. Now, within

certain limitations, such measurements can be obtained. When psychological testing was introduced, the

field of personality acquired the potential for quantification and measurement of its concepts. In brief,

psychometrics made possible meaningful research in personality.

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