LEARNING:Motor Learning, Verbal Learning, Behaviouristic Theories, Acquisition

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Organizational Psychology (PSY510)

LESSON 40

LEARNING

A psychologist's definition of learning is considerably broader than the layperson's view that "it is what we

did when we went to school." In actuality, each of us is continuously going to school. Learning occurs all of

the time. A generally accepted definition of learning, therefore, is any relatively permanent change in

behaviour that occurs as a result of experience. Ironically, we can say that changes in behaviour indicate

learning has taken place and that learning is a change in behaviour.

Obviously, the foregoing defining suggests we never see someone learning. We can see changes taking place

but not the learning itself. The concept is theoretical and, hence, not directly observable. Our definition has

several components that deserve clarification. First, learning involves change. This may be good or bad

from an organizational point of view. People can learn unfavourable behaviours--to hold prejudices or to

restrict their output, from example--as well as favourable behaviour. Second, the change must be relatively

permanent. Temporary changes may be only reflexive and fail to reprints any learning. Therefore, this

requirement rules out behavioural changes caused by fatigue or temporary adaptations. Third, our definition

is concerned with behaviour. Learning takes place where there is a change in actions. A change in an

individual's though processes or attitudes, if accompanied by no change in behaviour, would not be

learning. Finally, some form of experience is necessary for learning. This may be acquired directly through

observation or practice. Or it may result form an indirect experience, such as that acquired through reading.

The crucial test still remains: doe this result in a relatively permanent change in behaviour? If the answer is

yes, we can say that learning has taken place.

Types of Learning

Motor Learning

Motor learning is the process of improving the motor skills, the smoothness and accuracy of movements. It

is obviously necessary for complicated movements such as speaking, playing the piano and climbing trees,

but it is also important for calibrating simple movements like reflexes, as parameters of the body and

environment change over time.

Verbal Learning

Verbal learning is the process of improving cognitive skills, and learning to interpret things. It involves

gaining of knowledge and insight into things.

Theories of Learning

Theories of learning are divided into the following three categories:

1. Behaviouristic Theories

2. Cognitive Theories

3. Social Learning Theory

Behaviouristic Theories

Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning grew out of experiments to reach dogs to salivate in response to the ringing of a bell,

conducted at the turn of the century by a Russian physiologist, Ivan Pavlov. A simple surgical procedure

allowed Pavlov to measure accurately the amount of saliva secreted by a dog. When Pavlov presented the

dog with a piece of meat, the dog exhibited a noticeable increase in salivation. When Pavlov withheld the

presentation f meat and merely rang a bell, the god had not salivation. After repeatedly hearing the bell

before getting the food, the god began to salivate as soon as the bell rang. After a while, the god would

salivate merely at the sound of the bell, even if no food was offered. In effect, the dog has learned to

respond--0that is, to salivate--to the bell.

His concept of learning by conditioning was explained by him using the following basic principles:

Reflex: Reflex may be defined as an unlearned or an automatic response of the organism to a stimulus. For

example, when a puff of air strikes the eye, the eye blinks; when a person touches something hot, he

immediately withdraws his hand etc. In these examples, the puff of air and the hot object become the

stimulus while the response is the blinking of the eye or withdrawing of the body. Importantly all these

actions are involuntary and a natural reaction of the body towards the stimuli. This reaction is what has

been termed by Pavlov as reflex.

Unconditioned stimulus (UC): It is a stimulus that elicits a natural response. In other words, it is a

stimulus which causes the body to respond to itself, although the body is not conditioned to it. For

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example, when a bell is ring, a dog which is able to hear the sound of the bell pricks his ears in response to

the bell. Therefore, the dog responds to an unconditioned stimulus. The dog has not learnt to respond to

the stimulus in that manner.

Unconditioned response (UR): It is a natural response of an organism to an unconditioned stimulus. For

example, when a dog looks at food, its mouth starts to salivate. This means that the stimulus that the dog

has received from the environment, it is not a conditioned, but the dog reacts in a certain manner to the

unconditioned stimulus.

Conditioned stimulus (CS): According to Pavlov, when we combine a neutral stimulus with an

unconditioned stimulus, it evokes a different response. This response has been termed as Conditioned

Response which is as a result of the conditioned stimulus. The conditioned stimulus is when a dog is

presented with the ringing of the bell along with food. This is expected to cause the effect of salivation in

the dog's mouth. In other words, the stimulus of the food has been conditioned using the stimulus of the

ringing of the bell.

Conditioned response (CR): As the conditioned stimulus is given to the organism, it reacts in a certain

manner, which is known as the conditioned response of the organism. In the previous example, a dog was

presented with the stimulus of the ringing of the bell and that of food. This resulted in salivation in the

mouth of the dog. But later, if the dog is presented with the stimulus of the bell alone, it is expected to

salivate. This means that the response of the dog has been associated with the conditioned stimulus rather

than the original stimulus of the food. The dog would give the same response as it gave to the stimulus of

the food.

Based upon these basic elements, Pavlov put forward the idea of how animals and human beings learn.

According to him, when an unconditioned stimulus and a conditioned stimulus are repeatedly presented

together and they invoke an unconditioned response, it would later result in that only the presentation of a

conditioned stimulus evokes the same response as before. In simple terms, considering the example given

earlier, if ringing of a bell and food are presented together to a dog, and they lead to salivation, after

repeated trials when the bell alone is rung, it evokes the response of salivation because the dog has learnt to

expect food with the ringing of the bell. This is how Pavlov showed by his experiments that animal and

humans learn. Based upon his experiments he also formulated some principles of learning which are as

follows:

Acquisition: According to Pavlov, learning in humans and animals takes place when the paired stimuli

result in a response from the organism and the response is reinforced. That is if a dog is presented with

food and ringing of the bell at the same time, it results in learning of a certain response by the dog.

Extinction: If the conditioned response is not reinforced, the response disappears. This process is known

as extinction of the conditioned response. For example if a dog is given food with the ringing of the bell

and later the dog is not given food with the ringing of the bell, the dog would stop expected food with it.

This would result in disappearing of the conditioned response of salivation by the dog.

Spontaneous Recovery: When the conditioned response of an organism disappears because the

conditioned stimulus is not paired with the unconditioned stimulus, the process is extinction. The organism

would not show the conditioned response as long as the conditioned stimulus is not reinforced, but once

reinforcement is introduced, the extinguished conditioned response is quickly recovered. This means that

when a dog is not given food with the ringing of the bell, it stops expecting food with it. But as soon as the

ringing of the bell is accompanied with the food, the dog again starts expecting food with the bell. This is

known as spontaneous recovery.

Generalization: According to Pavlov, when similar stimuli evoke a conditioned response, it is a case of

generalization. This means that that for example the dog which shows the conditioned response of

salivating on the ringing of the bell, when presented with a similar stimulus of ringing, it may show the same

conditioned response as before.

Discrimination: When a slightly different stimulus does not evoke a conditioned response it is a case of

discrimination. This means that for example, the dog is given the stimulus of the ringing of a bell with food

using a special type of a bell. When it has learned the conditioned response, the type of bell is changed and a

similar bell is used. This then does not result in the conditioned response from the dog. In other words, the

dog has discriminated between the two types of stimuli.

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Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning argues that behaviour is a function of its consequences. People learn to behave to get

something they want to or avoid something do not want. Operant behaviour means voluntary or learned

behaviour in contrast to reflexive unlearned behaviour. The tendency to repeat such behaviour is influence

by the reinforcement or lack of reinforcement brought about by the consequences of the behaviour.

Reinforcement, therefore, strengthens a behaviour and increases the likelihood it will be repeated.

What Pavlov did for classical conditioning, the late Harvard psychologist B.F. Skinner did for operant

conditioning. Building on earlier work in the field, Skinner's research extensively expanded our knowledge

of operant conditioning.

Behaviour is assumed to be determined from without--that is, learned--rather from within--reflexive or

unlearned. Skinner argued that by creating pleasing consequences to follow specific forms of behaviour, the

frequency of that behaviour will increase. People will most likely engage in desired behaviours if they are

positively reinforced for doing so. Rewards, for example, are most effective they immediately follow the

desired response. Additionally, behaviour that is not rewarded, or is punished, is less likely to be repeated.

Main concepts of operant conditioning include the following schedules of reinforcement:

Fixed ratio schedule: In a fixed ratio schedule, after a fixed or constant number of responses are given, a

reward is initiated.

Variable ratio schedule: When the reward varies relative to the behaviour of the individual, he or she is

said to be reinforced on a variable ratio schedule.

Fixed interval schedule: When rewards are spaced at uniform intervals, the reinforcement schedule is of

the fixed interval type. The critical variable is time, and it is held constant. That is the predominant schedule

for almost all salaried workers.

Variable interval schedule: If rewards are distributed in time so reinforcements are unpredictable, the

schedule is of the variable interval type.

Cognitive Theories

Cognitive theory assumes that people are conscious, active participants in how they learn. First, the

cognitive view suggests that people draw on their experiences and use pas learning as a basis for their

present behavior. These experiences represent knowledge, or cognitions. For example, an employee faced

with a choice of job assignments will use previous experiences in deciding which one to accept. Second,

people make choices about their behavior. The employee recognizes that he has two alternatives and

chooses one. Third, when the employee finds the job assignment rewarding and fulfilling, he will recognize

that the choice was a good one and will understand why. Finally, people evaluate those consequences and

add them to prior learning, which affects future choices. Faced with the same job choices next year the

employee will probably be motivated to choose the same one. Several perspectives on learning take a

cognitive view.

Cognitive theories are usually attributed to Tolman and Kohler. Kohler saw that monkeys were able to

attach sticks together to reach far off objects which they thought was food. They would also pile up boxes

to reach high places if they wanted to. Kohler concluded that learning takes place by insight. Monkeys

thought about what to do first and then performed the action. Based on this observation, Kohler concluded

rejected trial and error as a method of learning.

Kohler also postulated the concept of isomorphism which means that there is kind of a mental map of the

objects in environment, and this mental map helps learning by insight. This means that the mind of

individuals, there is a map which according to him is the explanation of the things around him. In other

words, the map is the individual's perception about the world around him.

Social Learning Theory

Individuals can also learn by observing what happens to other people and just by being told about

something, as well as by direct experiences. So, for example, mush of what we have learned comes from

watching models--parents, teachers, peers, motion picture and television performers, bosses, and so forth.

This view that we can learn through both observation and direct experience has been called social learning

theory. It is attributed to Bandura.

While social-learning theory is an extension or operant conditioning--that is, it assumes behaviour is a

function of consequences--it also acknowledges the existence of observational learning and the importance

or perception in learning. People respond to how they perceive and define consequences, not to the

objective consequences themselves.

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The influence of models is central to the social-learning viewpoint. Four processes have been found to

determine the influence that a model will have on an individual. As we show later in this chapter, the

inclusion of the flowing processes when management sets up employee training programs will significantly

improve the likelihood the programs will be successful:

1. Attention processes: People only learn from a model when they recognize and pay attention to its

critical features. We tend to be most influence by models that are attractive, repeatedly available,

important to us, or similar to us in our estimation.

2. Retention processes: A model's influence will depend on how well the individual remembers the

model's action after the model is no longer readily available.

3. Motor reproduction processes: After a person ahs seen a new behaviour by observing the model,

the watching must be converted to doing. This process then demonstrates that the individual can

perform the modelled activities.

4. Reinforcement processes: Individuals will be motivated to exhibit the modelled behaviour if

positive incentives or rewards are provided. Behaviour that are reinforced will be given more

attention, learned better, and performed more often.

Common Principles of Learning Theories

Following are two of the common principles of learning theories:

1. According to all of the above mentioned learning theories, punishment is a stimulus that decreases the

probability of a response while on the other hand;

2. Reward is a stimulus that increases the probability of a response.

Punishment

Punishment may be defined as an unpleasant, or aversive, consequence that results from behaviour.

Punishment tends to decrease the frequency of undesirable behaviour.

Research shows that in order for punishment to be effective, it needs to be:

· Immediate: Given as soon as the behaviour is found divergent.

· Consistent: Similar in nature, every time it is given and given for the same reason.

· Impersonal: Should not focus on the personal attributes of the employee but should be based on the

performance deviations.

Rewards or Reinforcers

The reinforcement theory is the same as operant conditioning by Skinner, which is based on the idea that

behaviour is a function of its consequences. Reinforcers may be categorized into the following two

categories based on the needs they satisfy:

Primary Reinforcers: These reinforcers satisfy the primary needs of individuals such as hunger, security,

etc.

Secondary Reinforcers: These reinforcers are related to satisfaction of secondary needs such as need to

recognitions, etc.

Reinforcers in Organizations

Reinforcers in organization can be categorized into the monetary and non monetary reinforcers. Monetary

reinforcers involve monetary benefits for the employee while non-monetary reinforcers, as the name

suggests, involve non-monetary benefits:

Monetary Reinforcers

Following are some of the monetary benefits available to mangers which they could give to their employees:

Pay: Research shows that unless pay raise is 6-7% of the basic pay, it does not motivate the employee. In

other words, a pay raise less than 6-7% of the basic pay does not serve as a motivator. Further, small raise

adversely affects employee's morale.

Monetary Reward: Research shows that beyond a certain point, monetary reward does not raise

performance. It is because the employee starts yearning for the reward rather than the performance.

Further, small raise to high earners is demodulating for them.

Non-Monetary Reinforcers

Seven different types of non-monetary reward may also be used, they include:

1. Consumables: These include items such as free lunches, trips, etc.

2. Manipulatables: These include items such as watches, trophies, pins, etc.

3. Visual and auditory rewards: These include rewards such as good office with a window, etc.

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4. Job design: This reward relates to improving the job design of the employee leading to greater job

satisfaction.

5. Formal recognition: Formal recognition by the boss in the form of a letter or in from of other

employees is also a non-monetary reward.

6. Performance feedback: Positive feedback by the employee is also a form of reinforcer in the

organization.

7. Social recognition and attention: Recognition by the boss in front of other employees and increased

attention to the employee also serves as a reward for the employee in the organizations.

REFERENCES

· Luthans, Fred. (2005). Organizational Behaviour (Tenth Edition). United States: McGraw Hill Irwin.

· Mejia, Gomez. Balkin, David & Cardy, Rober. (2006). Managing Human Resources (Fourth Edition).

India: Dorling Kidersley Pvt. Ltd., licensee of Pearson Education in South Asia.

· Robbins, P., Stephen. (1996). Organizational Behaviour (Seventh Edition). India: Prentice Hall, Delhi.

· Huczynski, Andrzej & Buchanan, David. (1991). Organizational Behaviour: An Introductory Text

(Second Edition). Prentice Hall. New York.

· Moorhead, Gregory & Griffin, Ricky. (2001). Organizational Behaviour (First Edition). A.I.T.B.S.

Publishers & Distributors. Delhi.

· Motor Learning: Retrieved from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_learning

FURTHER READING

· Theories of learning: http://www.brookes.ac.uk/services/ocsd/2_learntch/theories.html

· Learning theory (education) - Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_theory_(education)

· Ivan Pavlov - Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Pavlov

· B. F. Skinner - Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia: http:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._F._Skinner

· Albert Bandura - Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia: http:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Bandura

· Psychology History: http:// www.muskingum.edu/~psych/psycweb/history/tolman.htm -

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