COMMUNICATION:Historical Background, Informal-Formal, Interpersonal Communication

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Organizational Psychology (PSY510)

Lesson 27

COMMUNICATION

(Part I)

Communication can be defined as the use of symbols to transfer information. Communication is a social

process in which two or more parties exchange information and share meaning. Communication has been

studies from many perspectives. Research shows that 44% of managerial effectiveness comes from routine

communication. Organizational communication may be defined as all the patterns, networks and systems of

communication within an organization.

Good communication is often erroneously defined by the communicator as agreement with the message

instead of clear understanding of the message. If someone disagrees with us, many of us assume that the

person just did not fully understand our position. In other words, many of us define good communication

as having someone accept our views. But anyone can clearly understand what we mean and just not agree

with what we say. In fact, many times when a conflict has gone on a long time, people will say it is because

the parties are not communicating effectively. This assumption reflects the tendency to think that effective

communication equals agreement, which is not true.

Historical Background

Henry Fayol's Contribution

Henry Fayol gave a detailed analysis of and solution to communication problem. According to him, formal

channels of communication in the organization cause the communication to be slow and distorted. If there

are a number of channels and steps between the top management and the frontline managers, the

information emanating for the frontline managers would become highly distorted when it reaches the top

management, i.e. only if the information actually reaches the addressee. Therefore, according to Fayol,

formal channels of communication in organizations should not be followed in an organization but

"gangplank" should be allowed. Gangplank literally means a plank or a board used for boarding or

disembarking from a ship. In the context of communication, gangplank, as used by Fayol refers to the

ability of the members of the organization to bypass all formal channels of communication and use the

plank to reach any level of authority in order to convey the information exactly as it is intended. In other

words, it the situation where anyone talks to anyone else without regard to status, position or rank.

Chester Barnard's Contribution

Chester Irving Barnard (18861961) was a telecommunications executive and author of Functions of the

Executive, an influential 20th century management book, in which Barnard presented a theory of

organization and the functions of executives in organizations.

Two of his theories are particularly interesting: the theory of authority and the theory of incentives. Both are

seen in the context of a communication system that should be based in some essential rules:

Chester Barnard: Believed that communication shapes the form and internal economy of an organization.

He lists 6 factors which facilitate communication:

1. Channels should be known to all

It means that whatever channels of communication exist within the organization, all members of

the organization should have an idea about them. They should be clearly communicated to the

members and the members should know how to approach the channels and use them.

2. Definite channels available to everyone

Further, channels of communication within an organization should not be restricted to some

people only, i.e. formal channels of communication should be available to everyone in order to

ensure effective communication.

3. Line should be direct and short

The communication channels should ensure that the line of communication is short and the

communication is direct between the sender and the receiver.

4. Competent persons should hold communication channels

Communication channels should be handled by competent people who have the ability to maintain

the integrity of the information and are aware of the worth of information which they are

communicating. They should be experts in the field.

5. Lines should not be interrupted during the functioning of organizations

Organizational Psychology (PSY510)

The line of communication should be such that any functioning of the organization should not

distort the communication or the channel itself.

6. Communication should be authenticated

Communication in the organization should be authentic and should convey information which is

true and dependable. Fake information should be ruled out. In other words, the integrity of

communication should be maintained.

According to Barnard, what makes a communication authoritative rests on the subordinate rather than in

the boss. Thus, he takes a perspective that was very unusual at that time. One might say that managers

should treat workers respectfully and competently to obtain authority.

Modern View

The modern model of communication can be understood by considering the continuum model of

communication. According to this model, there are two types of communications, both representing

continuums of communication options.

Informal-Formal

Communication within an organization is often described as formal or informal. Formal communication

refers to communication that follows the official chain of command or is part of the communication

required to do one's job. For example, when a manger asks an employee to complete a task, he or she is

communicating formally. So is the employee who brings a problem to the attention of his or her manager.

Any communication that takes place within prescribed organizational work arrangements would be

classified as formal.

Informal communication is organizational communication that is not defined by organization's structural

hierarchy. When employees talk with each other in the lunch room, as they bass in hallways, or as they are

working out at the company exercise facility, that is informal communication. Employees form friendships

and communicate with each other. The informal communication systems fulfill two purposes in

organizations:

· It permits employees to satisfy their need for social interaction, and

· it can improve an organization's performance by creating alternative, and frequently faster and

more efficient, channels of communication.

Humanistic-Mechanistic

Humanistic and Mechanistic model of communication represents another continuum of communication.

Communication in organization may be humanistic when it is done by the members of the organization, i.e.

verbal communication during meetings, informal verbal communication, formal verbal communication etc.

On the other hand, communication may be called mechanistic when is done through machines such as the

computer or fax machine. Emailing, voice recording, messaging, etc. are examples of mechanistic

communication.

Communication Technology

Technology, and more specifically information technology, has radically changed the way organizational

members communicate. For example, it has significantly improved a manager's ability to monitor individual

or team performance, it has allowed employees to have more complete information to make faster

decisions, and it has provided employees with more opportunities to collaborate and shore information.

Management Information System (Mis)

It may also be understood as exchange of information done by computers. Management Information

Systems (MIS) is a general name for the academic discipline covering the application of people,

technologies, and procedures -- collectively called the information system -- to solve business problems.

MIS are distinct from regular information systems in that they are used to analyze other information

systems applied in operational activities in the organization. Academically, the term is commonly used to

refer to the group of information management methods tied to the automation or support of human

decision making, e.g. Decision Support Systems, Expert systems, and Executive information systems. MIS

has greatly improved organizational communication.

Telecommunication Technology (TT)

Telecommunication may be defined as communication over a distance by circuits using cable, fiber optics,

satellites, radio etc. In the context of organizational communication, telecommunication technology is the

use of telecommunication for exchange of information. In other words it is the exchange of information

Organizational Psychology (PSY510)

through telephone, television and Email. Organizational members may make use of this technology to

quickly and efficiently communicate.

Non-Verbal Communication

Also called silent language, paralanguage, facial expression, space utilization (characteristics of

environment), Body language, (voices quality, oh, oh, um, laugh, etc.). Nonverbal communication includes

all the elements associated with human communication that are not expressed orally or in writing.

Sometimes it conveys more meaning that words. Human elements include facial expressions and physical

movements, both conscious and unconscious. Physical movements and "body language" are also highly

expressive human elements. Body language includes both actual movement and body positions during

communication. The handshake is a common form of body language. Other examples include making eye

contact, which expresses a willingness to communicate; sitting of the edge of a chair, which may indicate

nervousness or anxiety; and sitting back with arms folded, which may convey an unwillingness to continue

the discussion. Environmental elements such as buildings, office space, and furniture can also convey

messages. A spacious office, expensive draperies, plush carpeting and elegant furniture can combine to

remind employees or visitors that they are in the office of the president and the CEO of the firm. The

physical setting can also be instrumental in the development of communication networks, because a

centrally located person can more easily control the flow of task related information.

How to improve non-verbal communication (3)

Three key points can be defined to improve non-verbal communication:

Look at the whole situation

When the non-verbal behavior of a person is an emotional response, it is reflection of what is going on

within his or her mind or what sort of a situation he or she is in. It can therefore be use to better

understand the person's non-verbal behavior.

Note Discrepancy between Verbal and Non-Verbal Language

Often non-verbal signals show that the verbal communication is not accurate or the information provider is

either hiding something or lying.

Note Subtleties

It is important to note the subtleties or hidden motives. A genuine or fake smile by be discovered to

improve non-verbal communication.

Cultural differences play an important part in body language. Different gestures and moves or different

non-verbal communications may be interpreted differently across cultures.

Interpersonal Communication

Interpersonal Communication is the communication between two people in an organization. Before

communication can take place, a purpose, expressed as a message to be conveyed, must exist. It passes

between a source (the sender) and a receiver. The message is converted to symbolic form (called encoding)

and passed by way of some medium (channel) to the receiver, who retranslates the sender's message (called

decoding). The result is transfer of meaning from one person to another. This is the process of

interpersonal communication.

Effective and Ineffective Interpersonal Communication

Following are some of the characteristics of effective interpersonal communication:

Intended to help the employee rather than discourage him or her

Specific to the situation or the need of the employee

Useful for correcting the situation or suitable to the situation.

Following are some of the characteristics of ineffective interpersonal communication:

Intend to belittle employee.

General.

Untimely.

Effective feedback

Following are the suggestions that can help managers be more effective in providing feedback:

Intention of sender

Effective feedback is when feedback is to improve the employee's performance not a personal attack on the

employee.

Focus on specific behavior

Organizational Psychology (PSY510)

Effective feedback intends to focus on specific behavior of the employees that need to be addressed and is

not general.

Descriptive

Effective feedback tells the employee what he or she has done in objective terms rather than presenting a

value judgment.

Useful

Effective feedback helps the employee to improve performance and is useful for him or her and the

organization as well.

Timely

Effective feedback is given at the right time.

Employee must be ready to receive it

In order for the feedback to be effective, employees must be willing to receive it.

Clear

Feedback should be unambiguous.

Valid

Feedback to be effective needs to be valid and correct, and free from biases.

Other Variable Effecting Interpersonal Communication

Some other variables also effect interposal communication, such as: Trust; expectations; values; status;

compatibility. If the employees do not trust the boss or his judgment, the communication is likely to be

ineffective. All other variables mentioned above also effect interpersonal communication.

REFERENCES

Mejia, Gomez. Balkin, David & Cardy, Rober. (2006). Managing Human Resources (Fourth Edition).

India: Dorling Kidersley Pvt. Ltd., licensee of Pearson Education in South Asia.

Luthans, Fred. (2005). Organizational Behaviour (Tenth Edition). United States: McGraw Hill Irwin.

Robbins, P., Stephen. (1996). Organizational Behaviour (Seventh Edition). India: Prentice Hall, Delhi.

Huczynski, Andrzej & Buchanan, David. (1991). Organizational Behaviour: An Introductory Text

(Second Edition). Prentice Hall. New York.

Moorhead, Gregory & Griffin, Ricky. (2001). Organizational Behaviour (First Edition). A.I.T.B.S.

Publishers & Distributors. Delhi.

Management Information Systems. Retrieved from:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management_Information_Systems

FURTHER READING

About Chestar Barnard. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chester_Barnard

Organisations@Onepine: www.onepine.info/pbarnard.htm

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