THEORIES OF MOTIVATION:Instrumentality, Stacy Adamsâ€™S Equity theory

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Organizational Psychology (PSY510)

LESSON 21

THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

Victor Vroom's Expectancy Theory of Motivation

The Expectancy Theory of Victor Vroom deals with motivation and management. Vroom's theory

assumes that behavior results from conscious choices among alternatives whose purpose it is to

maximize pleasure and minimize pain. Together with Edward Lawler and Lyman Porter, Vroom

suggested that the relationship between people's behavior at work and their goals was not as simple

as was first imagined by other scientists. Vroom realized that an employee's performance is based

on individuals factors such as personality, skills, knowledge, experience and abilities.

· The expectancy theory says that individuals have different sets of goals and can be

motivated if they believe that:

· There is a positive correlation between efforts and performance,

· Favorable performance will result in a desirable reward,

· The reward will satisfy an important need,

· The desire to satisfy the need is strong enough to make the effort worthwhile.

Vroom's Expectancy Theory is based upon the following three beliefs:

Valence (Valence refers to the emotional orientations people hold with respect to outcomes

[rewards]. The depth of the want of an employee for extrinsic [money, promotion, time-off,

benefits] or intrinsic [satisfaction] rewards). Management must discover what employees value.

Expectancy (Employees have different expectations and levels of confidence about what they are

capable of doing). Management must discover what resources, training, or supervision employees

need.

Instrumentality (The perception of employees whether they will actually get what they desire

even if it has been promised by a manager). Management must ensure that promises of rewards are

fulfilled and that employees are aware of that.

Vroom suggests that an employee's beliefs about Expectancy, Instrumentality, and Valence interact

psychologically to create a motivational force such that the employee acts in ways that bring

pleasure and avoid pain. This force can be 'calculated' via the following formula:

Motivation = Valance x Expectancy (Instrumentality)

This formula can be used to indicate and predict such things as job satisfaction, one's occupational

choice, the likelihood of staying in a job, and the effort one might expend at work.

Organizational Psychology (PSY510)

Porter-Lawler Model

The process theory called the Porter-Lawler Model suggests that levels of motivation are based

more on the value that individuals place on the reward. The components that effect motivation

then, are called valence (what's important to you) and expectancy (can I do it). Porter and Lawler

suggest that perceived inequality in this model plays a pivotal role in job satisfaction. Our

motivation, or effort leads to performance. Our performance is followed by intrinsic and extrinsic

rewards. The perceived equity of those rewards leads to satisfaction.

The model of ties in Vroom's Expectancy Theory, roles and traits, intrinsic and extrinsic rewards

as well as satisfaction. Porter and Lawler suggest that employee effort is jointly determined by two

key factors: the value placed on certain outcomes by the individual, and the degree to which the

person believes that his effort will lead to the attainment of these rewards. However, the person's

ability and role clarity may prevent performance, thus, managers must assign people to tasks where

ability fits the requirements.

Porter and Lawler use satisfaction in their model. Satisfaction raises several interesting thoughts

regarding managers' motivation of employees. We define "satisfaction" as needs being met. Think

about it, if needs are met, what is the purpose of behavior? The same holds true for "happy."

Managers want to believe that happy, satisfied employees are the most productive. There is no

reputable research which confirms this.

Stacy Adams'S Equity theory

John Stacey Adams, workplace and behavioural psychologist, put forward his Equity Theory on

job motivation in 1963.

We each seek a fair balance between what we put into our job and what we get out of it. Adams

calls these inputs and outputs. We form perceptions of what constitutes a fair balance or trade of

inputs and outputs by comparing our own situation with other 'referents' (reference points or

examples) in the market place. We are also influenced by colleagues, friends, partners in

establishing these benchmarks and our own responses to them in relation to our own ratio of

inputs to outputs.

Organizational Psychology (PSY510)

Outputs are typically all financial

rewards - pay, salary, expenses,

Inputs are typically: effort, loyalty,

perks,

benefits,

pension

hard work, commitment, skill, ability,

People need to feel arrangements,

bonus

and

adaptability, flexibility, tolerance,

that there is a fair commission - plus intangibles -

determination, heart and soul,

balance

between recognition, reputation, praise and

enthusiasm, trust in our boss and

inputs and outputs. thanks, interest, responsibility,

superiors, support of colleagues and

stimulus,

travel,

training,

subordinates, personal sacrifice, etc.

development, sense of achievement

and advancement, promotion, etc.

If we feel are that inputs are fairly and adequately rewarded by outputs (the fairness benchmark

being subjectively perceived from market norms and other comparables references) then we are

happy in our work and motivated to continue inputting at the same level.

If we feel that our inputs out-weigh the outputs then we become demotivated in relation to our job

and employer. People respond to this feeling in different ways: generally the extent of

demotivation is proportional to the perceived disparity between inputs and expected outputs.

Some people reduce effort and application and become inwardly disgruntled, or outwardly

difficult, recalcitrant or even disruptive. Other people seek to improve the outputs by making

claims or demands for more reward, or seeking an alternative job.

Attribution Theory: Kelly

Human beings are rational and are motivated to identity, understand and change the environment.

Perception and not actual world govern motivation. Locus of internal or external control creates

motivation. According to attribution theory, the explanations that people tend to make to explain

success or failure can be analyzed in terms of three sets of characteristics:

First, the cause of the success or failure may be internal or external. That is, we may succeed or fail

because of factors that we believe have their origin within us or because of factors that originate in

our environment.

Second, the cause of the success or failure may be either stable or unstable. If the we believe cause

is stable, then the outcome is likely to be the same if we perform the same behavior on another

occasion. If it is unstable, the outcome is likely to be different on another occasion.

Third, the cause of the success or failure may be either controllable or uncontrollable. A

controllable factor is one which we believe we ourselves can alter if we wish to do so. An

uncontrollable factor is one that we do not believe we can easily alter.

The basic principle of attribution theory as it applies to motivation is that a person's own

perceptions or attributions for success or failure determine the amount of effort the person will

expend on that activity in the future.

There are four factors related to attribution theory that influence motivation: ability, task difficulty,

effort, and luck. In terms of the characteristics discussed previously, these four factors can be

analyzed in the following way:

Ability is a relatively internal and stable factor over which the learner does not exercise much direct

control.

Task difficulty is an external and stable factor that is largely beyond the learner's control.

Effort is an internal and unstable factor over which the learner can exercise a great deal of control.

Luck is an external and unstable factor over which the learner exercises very little control.

Emerging Theories

Control Theory

Control theory relates to feeling that employees are in full control of their lives, or are in control of

their jobs. Recent studies have shown that those who believe they have such personal control

Organizational Psychology (PSY510)

tolerate unpleasant events and experience less stress on the job than those who do not perceive

such control.

Agency Theory

According to the Agency Theory, the interest of the organization and individuals may clash

resulting in lesser motivation of the employees. Problems relating to clash between interests of

individuals and the organization are known as agency problems.

REFERENCES

Porter Lawler Model: http://www.people.vcu.edu/~rsleeth/Porter1.html

Cognitive Aspects of Motivation

http://education.calumet.purdue.edu/vockell/EdPsyBook/Edpsy5/Edpsy5_needs.htm

Physiological Aspects of Motivation

http://education.calumet.purdue.edu/vockell/EdPsyBook/Edpsy5/Edpsy5_physiological.htm

FURTHER READING

Learning from Poor and Minority Students Who Succeed in School by Janine Bempechat

http://www.units.muohio.edu/psybersite/workplace/motivation.shtml

http://www.luebasedmanagement.net/methods_vroom_expectancy_theory.html

Motivation:

http://education.calumet.purdue.edu/vockell/EdPsyBook/Edpsy5/Edpsy5_motivation.htm

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