INTELLIGENCE:The History of Measurement of Intelligence, Later Revisions

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Introduction to Psychology PSY101

Lesson 34

INTELLIGENCE

Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences

·Given by Howard Gardner in 1985

·He entirely disagreed with the theorists who gave importance to factor analysis, except one thing that is

common and found in his and the former theories is that intelligence is the composition of many specific

abilities

·The theory maintains that intelligence consists of eight independent intelligences that vary in degree among

individuals; it includes the potential of solving the problems or creating products that can be valued within

one or more than one cultural settings

·Maintains that humans possess around eight kinds of intelligences, they are

· Linguistics

· Logical mathematical

· Spatial intelligence

· Musical intelligence

· Bodily kinesthetic

· Interpersonal intelligenceIntrapersonal intelligence

· Naturalistic intelligence

Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of Development

·Given by American psychologist, Robert Sternberg, in 1980s, which is similar to Gardner's theory of

intelligence.

·He observed that mental tests sometimes do not accurately predict success or failure in reality.

·According to his triarchic or three- dimensional theory, intelligence consists of three main components:

· Analytic intelligence

· Creative intelligence

· Practical intelligencePiaget's View of Intelligence:·Intellectual development can be defined

in terms of qualitative changes in thinking which are clearly apparent in children of particular age.

·His theory is more concerned with the universal patterns of intellectual development and functioning. He

maintained a comprehensive theory that emphasized on `how' children acquire knowledge and use it to

solve logical problems

·He was more interested in how children exhibit intelligence in different stages of life as he proposed the

four stages of cognitive development, which he termed as universal and invariant (occurring in the same

sequence). The stages are: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational and formal operational.

Hierarchical Theory of Intelligence

·Given by Carroll 1986 and Vernon 1971.

·Their hierarchy consists of three levels.

·At the highest level, there is general intelligence or "g" factor as given by Spearman.

·In the second level, are the factors of primary mental abilities as identified by Thurstone.

·At the third level, there are specific abilities or factors underlying intelligenceMeasurement of

Intelligence

Intelligence of a person can be measured through intelligence tests. The use of a battery of

tests is preferred over a single test

The History of Measurement of Intelligence

Man was always interested in knowing their own ability level, or in other words the

intelligence, as well as that of others.

People looked for capable persons while searching for life-mates, companions, workers,

architects, artists, and poets or authors.

Even in case of chefs, tailors, carpenters, or barbers, those with the fine skill and the ability to

generate unique ideas were preferred.

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In the olden times, observation and previous experience were the only ways to judge a person's

capability

intelligence

level.

The prevalent, modern, approaches to measure intelligence are based upon the contribution of

Alfred Binet.

The first formal measure of intelligence was developed by French psychologist Alfred Binet

and Theodore Simon, in 1905 in France.

The test or the scale was developed in order to assist the education ministry and department in

identifying "dull" students in the Paris school system, so that they could be provided remedial

aid.

The main idea was that intelligence can be measured in terms of performance of a child

If performance on certain tasks, that were the test items, improved with age then it could be

taken as an indication of intelligence of a person.

By developing tasks on which people's performance improved with age, a measure could be

devised which could distinguish intelligent people from those not intelligent.

Using the same concept Binet developed the first intelligence test in 1905. The test could

identify more intelligent children within a particular age group. It could differentiate intelligent

children from the less intelligent ones.

The test was devised for locating the `dullest' students in the Paris school system so that

remedial assistance could be provided to them before they were denied instruction.

The Testing Procedure Adopted by Binet and Simon

· Initially Binet developed a number of tasks.

· Then he took groups of students who were categorized or labeled as `dull' or `bright' by their

teachers.

The tasks were presented to them. The tasks that could be completed by the `bright' students

were retained; the rest were discarded.

The idea was to retain tasks that could be completed by the bright students, as these were

considered to be indicative of the child's intelligence.

With further work, dull or bright children could be identified with reference to their age.

The scale could, thus, identify bright or dull students within particular age groups.

Here are some sample items from Simon-Binet Test (1911)

Three years

Shows nose, eyes and mouth. Repeats two digits. Describes objects in a picture. Gives family name. Repeats

a sentence of six syllables.

Four years

Gives own sex. Names key, knife, and penny. Repeats three digits. Compares the length of two lines.

Five years

Compares two weights. Copies a square. Repeats a sentence of ten syllables. Counts four pennies.

Six years

Distinguishes between morning and afternoon. Defines objects in terms of their use. Copies a shape.

Counts 13 pennies. Compares faces from the aesthetic point of view.

Seven years

Identifies right hand and left ear. Describes a picture. Follows precise directions. Names four colors.

Eight years

Compares two remembered objects. Counts from 20 to 0. Indicates omissions in pictures. Gives day and

date. Repeats five digits.

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Fifteen years

Repeats seven digits. Gives three rhymes. Repeats a sentence of 26 syllables. Interprets a picture. Solves a

problem from several facts

Later Revisions

The original Binet- Simon scale was revised a number of times.

The American psychologist, Lewis Terman gave the first Stanford revision of the scale in 1916.

These revision comparison American standards from age 3 to adulthood.

Further revisions were made in 1937 and 1960.

Stanford- Binet is one of the most widely used tests even today.

The Concept of Mental Age

· Children taking the Binet- Simon test were assigned a score that corresponded to the age

group they belonged to.

This score indicated their "mental age".

Mental age referred to the average age o children who secured the same score.

Mental age can be understood as the typical intelligence level found for people at a given

chronological age.

Mental age of a person can be different from his or her chronological age i.e., it can be above or below that.

It could reflect whether or not a child was performing at a level at which his age mates were.

BUT it gave rise to a problem. How could we compare people belonging to different age groups?

Will a 20 year old with a mental age of 23 be equally intelligent as an 8 year old having a mental age of

11?The problem becomes more serious when we are talking of comparing those below their mental age e.g.

comparing an 8 year old operating at a mental age of 5, with a 20 year old operating at a mental age of 17

The Concept of Intelligence Quotient or IQ

As a result of problems with depending merely on mental age, a solution was devised in terms

of intelligent quotient, a concept whereby the chronological age of the person is also given due

consideration.

Intelligence Quotient: IQ

An indicator or measure of intelligent that considers a person's mental as well as chronological

age.

The formula for IQ:

IQ score= MA/ CA x 100

Using This Formula Means That

If the mental and chronological age of a person is the same, then he or she will have an IQ of

100. If one is below his chronological age then the IQ will fall below 100 and vice versa.

Deviation IQ Scores

· Psychologists kept working on the concept of IQ and made amendments in the primary

concept of IQ.

Today, although the main concept of calculating IQ is still adhered to, we talk in terms of

Deviation IQ scores.

Deviation IQ scores are based upon sophisticated statistical techniques. The average score of a

group is kept in mind, and the IQ of the person taking an IQ test is stated with reference to the

points with which he deviates from the average.

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Available Statistics Show That

Around two- thirds or 66% of the population fall within a range of 15 IQ points from the

average IQ score of 100 i.e., the majority of people have an IQ between 85 and 115.

The Meaning of IQ Test Scores

IQ score

Rating

< 70

Retarded

Borderline

100

Average

Above 115

Superior

Above 140

Gifted

IQ Tests

Today a number of IQ tests are available.

But before choosing a test for assessing a subject's intelligence, and considering it a

trustworthy device, the psychologist has to make sure that the test is:

Valid

Reliable, and

Standardized

Stanford-Binet Test (4th Ed.)

· Last revised 1985.

· Contains a series of test items that vary in nature according to the subject's age.

· For example a child may is asked to copy figures or answer questions about everyday life

activities.

Older subjects solve analogies, explain proverbs, or describe similarities underlying sets of

words.

Administration of Stanford-Binet test

Individual-oral administration.

The examiner begins from a mental level at which he finds out the subject to be.

Items from succeeding levels are asked.

The test ends when they reach a level where no items are successfully attempted.

IQ is computed by by examining the pattern of correct and incorrect responses of the subject.

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised

WAIS-R and Wechsler Intelligence Scale for children-III: WISC-III

WAIS-R and WISC-III

Psychologist David Wechsler developed both.

The two tests consist of two major parts:

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Verbal part/scale

ii.

Performance or non verbal part/scale

Verbal scale

· Consists of more conventional types of problems involving vocabulary definition, and

comprehension of various concepts.

The subscales include:

· Information

· Comprehension

· Arithmetic

· Similarities

Performance Scale

It involves assembling small objects and arranging pictures in a logical order.

The subscales include:

· Digit symbol

· Picture completion

· Object assembly

Administration of WAIS and WISC

Individual administration.

Time consuming.

Group Intelligence Tests

Considering the time consuming nature of the administration of Stanford-Binet test, WAIS-R,

and WISC-III, psychologists have developed a number of group intelligence tests.

Cultural Biases and Intelligence Tests

Tests used to assess people's intelligence have been frequently criticized for being biased

against particular groups of people.

Culture-fair IQ tests are developed and used for overcoming this problem. These tests do not

discriminate against any minority or cultural group.

Alternative Formulations

Psychologists may also use other tools for assessing the ability and capacity of a person. They

believe in measuring other aspects of a person's ability, besides just relying upon the I.Q. of a

person. These aspects include:

· Moral intelligence

· Social intelligence

· Emotional intelligence

Moral Intelligence

Given by Coles (1997) and Hass (1998)

It is the ability to differentiate between right and wrong

More comprehensively, it is the capacity of making right decisions that are not only beneficial

for one self but to others as well

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Social Intelligence

Also known as SQ.

It is the ability to understand and deal with people; salesmen, politicians, teachers, clinicians,

and religious leaders exhibit this type of intelligence

It is also the ability to understand and deal one's own self by identifying one's thoughts,

feeling, attitudes and behaviors

The approach has been given and supported by Hough, 2001, Riggio, Murphy, & Pirozzolo

(2002).

Emotional intelligence or EI (indicated by EQ)

It is the type of social intelligence which is the ability to cope with one's own and other's

emotions; to differentiate between them and use information for guiding one's thoughts and

actions.

Indicated by the EQ of a person. It includes these aspects:

· Self-awareness

· Managing emotions

· Empathy

· Handling relationships.

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