THINKING, REASONING, PROBLEM- SOLVING AND CREATIVITY:Mental shortcuts

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Introduction to Psychology PSY101

Lesson 30

THINKING, REASONING, PROBLEM- SOLVING AND CREATIVITY

Inductive Reasoning

Specific cues are used for drawing inferences.

Inductive Thinking

By using observation, knowledge and experience, different sets of inferences are drawn about the phenomenon of interest.

Small bits of information are used to draw the general conclusion.

The person uses his or her observation, knowledge, and experience of specific case and infers general rules.

For example, if you have been noticing that your teacher is very soft spoken, usually marks you present even when you are

late for the class, and forgives your mistakes, then you might take chance for late submission of your assignment.

The major shortcoming of this type of thinking is that the conclusions may be biased, or the evidence used for drawing

conclusions may be invalid, insufficient, or may be just a chance occurrence. Whereas appropriate conclusions have to be

unbiased.

Thinking and Decision- Making

It is one of the most complicated forms of thinking.

Cognitive psychologists are still focusing on the components and processes that underlie this type of thinking.

An important area in which the cognitive psychologists are most interested.

For many years psychologists have attempted to explain the processes involved for decision making, and solving problems.

The most famous examples of which are

Thorndike's trial and error problem solving.

Kohler's insight problem solving.

Mental shortcuts

Algorithms and Heuristics

Algorithms: A rule, if it is applied, ensures the solution to the problem.

Algorithms are always accurate.

We do not necessarily understand their logical basis e.g. algebraic formula

Algorithms and Heuristics

Algorithms: A rule, if it is applied, ensures the solution to the problem.

Algorithms are always accurate.

We do not necessarily understand their logical basis e.g. algebraic formula

Heuristics: A rule of thumb that if used can be effective in finding solutions to problems, but may not

ensure or guarantee this.

For example rules for playing naught and crosses, or preparing only the `important' parts of the course for the exam.

Problem Solving

· Thinking for the sake of finding solutions to problems.

· Three major steps are involved in solving a problem.

i. Preparation for finding the solutions

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ii. Producing the solutions

iii. Appraisal of the solutions that have been generated

There are two types of problems:

a. Well- defined problem.

b. ill- defined problem.

Well- Defined Problem

Clear, definite and well-formed problem. Means of solving that problem are available. E.g. when solving the mathematical

equation in which the problem is rather difficult, but the method used to solve it is direct and available.

Ill- Defined Problem

Indefinite, unclear, ill- formed problem whose nature is not specifically defined and the ways for solving them is also

difficult__ how do we build the morale of the crowd when their own team is losing the match???

. In this, the problem is not specific and so the solution.

The main shortcoming of this type of problem is that it is not possible to draw the immediate and absolute conclusions and

solutions of the problem.

Kinds of Problems

Problems are typically of three types

Arrangement problems

Problems of inducing structures

Transformation problems

Arrangement Problems

Solutions of the problems require rearrangement and re evaluation of the components so that certain criterion will be

satisfied

There are a number of solutions to certain problems, but there are only specific solutions that fulfill certain requirements

e.g. solving mathematical equation

Problems of Inducing Structures

It refers to the problems whose solution depends on the relationship of components among them so that new construct which

has a relationship can be developed.

e.g. see and tall what number comes next? 221- 412- 321- 512- 421- 612-. Firstly, one has to consider the existing

relationship between these numbers then make out the other relationship

**521-712

Transformation Problems

· Problems that require understanding and that should be solved in a manner that involves series of methods so that the

initial problematic state can be changed into the goal attaining state.

Steps for Problem Solving

Four steps are important for solving certain problem.

Means- ends analysis: Repeated testing of the behavior in order to lessen the distance

between the goal and current existence e.g. taking instructions or asking questions for

solving puzzles

Sub goals: Divide the problem into small element and then solve them in steps or

sequentially

Insight: Instant awareness of the relationship among the existing components, which

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formally seems independent of each other. A German psychologist Wolfgang Kohler was

one of the first psychologists who observed this phenomenon, especially when facing

challenges.

Evaluation of solution: The final step in problem solving which involves appraising the

existing solution of the problem to demonstrate whether the solution is adequate or not.

Impediments to Problem Solving

There are various factors, which serve as an obstacle in finding solutions. They are;

· Functional fixedness.

· Mental set.

Functional fixedness is the capacity to think about certain phenomena in its most typical use or form.

Mental set is the tendency to think of a solution in a most old patterned ways___ old means of finding and

answering problems.

Creativity and Thinking

The word "creative" is derived from the Latin word "creare" means "to make" or Greek word "Krainein" means, " to

fulfill".

Creativity may be defined as the innovative, novel responses and ideas into a harmonious

whole/ form.

Creativity can be flourished by two means;

Inspiration.

Hard work.

Stages in Creative Thinking:

Creativity mainly involves four steps;

Preparation,

Incubation,

Illumination,

Verification,

Revision.

i. Preparation: It includes assembling or combining the material and think thoroughly about it.

ii. Incubation: After thinking intensely about the certain problem, the person lets his mind free by putting the

problem aside and let its solution incubate in the mind.

iii. Illumination: It also refers to as " insight" when innovative ideas are instantly generated__ a sudden flash

comes to mind when one is brainstorming at it. Scientific innovations are one of the examples.

iv.Verification: Evaluation of the problem to find out whether the solution is correct or not

v.Revision: This involves the whole of the above steps involved that should be used in order to reach on

some solution

Factors Associated With Creativity

The main factors that may contribute in enhancing creativity is

i. Divergent thinking,

ii. Convergent thinking.

Divergent thinking involves varied thoughts and solutions to a certain problem.

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Convergent thinking includes various thoughts and solutions for a particular

problem.

Creative thinking is `GOING BEYOND'

Creative thinking is going beyond:

The obvious

The defined

The laid out

The conventional

The common

The usual

Creative thinking is:

The ability to generate a variety of unusual solutions to a problem

Creative thinking is:

Open

Original

Imaginative

Uninhibited

Exciting

Fulfilling

Lateral

May be stray and wild at times

Lateral versus Vertical Thinking

Lateral thinking

Finds new ways of looking at things

Avoids looking for what is "right" or" wrong".

Analyzes ideas to generate new ideas

Considers the irrelevant

Progresses by avoiding the obvious

Vertical thinking

Tries to find absolutes

Seeks continuity

Finds what is right: seeks "yes" or "no" justifications

Looks for stability: rejects irrelevant information.

Uses established patterns & considers the obvious.

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Lateral Thinking

A deliberate process and set of techniques for generating new ideas by changing an individual's or

team's way of perceiving and interpreting information; as opposed to vertical thinking i.e., a logical

step-by-step process of developing ideas by proceeding continuously from one bit of information to

the next.

Lateral/Creative Problem Solving

Reversal Technique: examining problem and turning it completely around; inside out or

upside down.

Analogy Technique: developing a statement about similarities between objects, persons, or

situations.

Cross Fertilization Technique: asking experts from other fields (totally different fields) to

view the problem and suggest methods for solving it from their own area of interest.

Assessing and Examining Creative Thinking

Name all the things you can think of that are round/circular in shape.

List as many white, edible things as you can.

List all the uses that you can think of a watermelon.

List all the possible uses of a pencil.

Mr. X has been told a number of times to be in office at 9 but he is always late. WHY???

Ms. Q has a number of clothes, but she has been wearing the same dress for the last two

weeks. WHY???

Your rich client comes to your office. You offer him coffee but he refuses. WHY???

"You can become what you imagine yourself to be!!!"

As If:

Appearing for an interview

Imagine

you were to introduce yourself to an interviewing board.

As if

Think

As if you were introducing yourself to an interviewing board.

Act

As if you were actually introducing yourself to an interviewing board

Thinking Loud

Your friends Z and X have stopped talking to each other, whereas they have to work together in the

same office.

a: Think of as many reasons as you can of the dispute.

b: Think of as many ways as you can of a possible patch up planned by you.

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Creative Thinking and Problem Solving

Clearly thinking about all possible aspects of the issue before taking decisive action

The cases of shop lifting in a super market rose to such a high level that they had to increase the

prices. They hired guards but that did not work much. However they finally found a solid solution.

How???

Concept Challenge

Challenging the established ideas for new solutions

· Women should do house work.

· In solving disputes all parties should have equal part in decision-making.

Cognitive Complexity

Persons who are high in cognitive complexity are interested in use of more philosophical and

abstract ways of thinking___ these types of people give preference in using complex, abstract

and intricate stimuli and thinking patterns. Comedy, jokes and humor is its best example

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