EMOTIONS II:Respiratory Changes, Pupillometrics, Glandular Responses

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Introduction to Psychology PSY101

Lesson 28

EMOTIONS II

Physiological Changes during Emotions

· Psychologists believed that emotions can be measured quantitatively by observing different physiological

responses of the individual = indicators of emotions.

· They also believed that they themselves are different emotional states.

· The major physiological changes that occur during emotions are:

1. Respiratory Changes

· The most apparent and obvious change during emotions.

· During emotions, respiration increases; occurs also when the person is happy or excited.

· But the production and secretion of saliva decreases as the process of respiration increases.

2. Pupillometrics

· Darwin was the first person who identifies this phenomenon.

· Pupil of the eye is very responsive during emotions.

· Dilates at favorable stimulus and contracts at unfavorable stimulus.

· Our pupil is also very responsive to favorable and unfavorable sounds and taste.

3. Changes in Blood Pressure and heart rate

· Variations in blood pressure occur during emotions; usually increases during an emotional state.

· Heartbeat also increases during emotions.

· Increased blood pressure and heightened heart rate for prolonged periods may lead to coronary

heart disease.

4. Glandular Responses

· During strong emotional states such as anger or fear, excessive amounts of hormones adrenaline and

nor adrenaline are secreted into the blood stream.

· Due to this secretion; Liver secretes excessive amounts of glucose directly into the blood stream that

causes the blood to clot rapidly in case of injury or damage.

· Blood pressure and sugar level rises, pulse become fast, air passage of the lungs enlarges and causes more air

into the lungs, pupil enlarge, sweat appears all over the body particularly on hands, and temperature of the

skin rises.

· Nor adrenaline helps to constrict the blood vessels, thus making it available to other parts of the body in

case of injury.

· Pituitary and thyroid glands are also responsive to emotional states.

· All the glandular responses help to cope physically with the emotional as well as emergency

situations.Gastrointestinal Function

Stomach and intestines are also very responsive to emotional states.

They either start working at a very high rate or stop entirely.

During strong emotional arousal, its working speed decreases and flow of blood is

more towards the brain and the skeletal muscles rather than these organs.

6. Neural Reactions

Besides affecting visceral organs of the body, emotions also bring changes in the

neural/ nerve activity.

Autonomic division of the P.N.S. is more effective in this regard in which

sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems work successively.

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7. Galvanic Skin Response

When perspiration appears during emotions, two important changes occur in skin's

electrical stimulation:

oRapid generation of electromotive energy

oThe electrical resistance of skin changes

· These changes can be measured

through a measurement of "Galvanic Skin

Response (GSR)"; formally called " Psycho Galvanic Response (PGR).

·Galvanic skin response, in combination with the respiration and blood pressure, is used for lie detection

with people who are supposed to be guilty of some crime.

8. Emotional Intensity and State of Arousal

Most of the times we are aware of our emotional states such as angry, excited or

afraid, in all these states, the physiological conditions are the same e.g., heart beat

increases, face blushes or becomes pale.

That is why we are unable, at times, to differentiate between different emotions and

the associated arousal.

Other Common Bodily Changes during Emotions

Dryness of throat and mouth,

Muscle tension,

Weakness or fainting,

Trembling, and

Sinking feeling in heart or stomach

Theories of Emotions

· Psychologists have attempted to define and explain the emotional arousal and

physiological conditions that accompany them.

A number of theories have been developed in this regard, but the most famous ones are;

James- Lange theory of emotions

Cannon- Bard theory of emotions

Schachter- Singer theory of emotions; (Cognitive Labeling Theory/ Two Factor Theory)

Other important theories include:

· Cognitive Appraisal Theory: Richard Lazarus

· Cognitive Theory: Magda Arnold

· Opponent- Process Theory: Solomon and Corbit

· Activation Theory: Lindsley

· Theory of Emotions: Albert Ellis

1. James- Lange Theory of Emotions

Earliest theory of emotion; now considered as the classical approach to emotions.

Given by American psychologist, William James and Danish psychologist, Carl

Lange in the 19th century.

Emotional experience occurs in reaction to instinctive bodily events that take place

as a result of an external situation: "...we feel sorry because we cry, angry because

we strike, afraid because we tremble" (James, 1890).

Physiological changes create specific sensations, and our brain interprets these

sensations as different emotions.

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·Theory asserts that awareness of the physiological responses determines our emotional arousal.

Sequence of Events in James-Lange Model

Experience of an emotion-involving situation i.e., find oneself in a waiting room before first job interview.

Physiological responses take place; visceral bodily changes are activated e.g. pounding heart, sweaty palms,

respiration increases and other physiological states.

Brain interprets these physiological changes as emotional experience. In the case of the interview situation,

fear.

Criticism against James-Lange model

· On most emotional occasions we experience the emotion quite immediately after a triggering

stimulus e.g. hearing loud bang and being startled. Are our visceral responses that fast??

· Many a time we don't even have enough time for this intermediate part. We feel the emotion

immediately after the stimulus is registered e.g. feeling disgust at the very sight of someone we

hate.

· The most basic criticism of this theory is emotional experience (fear) results from the physiological

responses after evaluating the situation.

· On many occasions we experience physiological changes but no emotion e.g. patients of

hypertension experience raised blood pressure but do not experience associated emotion. It is the

case with joggers whose heart does pound but there is no emotional experience.

How do same physiological changes create different emotional experiences???

Emotion-

involving

Event

Visceral

bodily

changes

Brain interprets the visceral

changes as emotional

experience

2. Cannon- Bard Theory of Emotions

Given by Walter Canon and Philip Bard in 1920's

The theory assumes that emotional states and the physiological reactions work

independently, but are triggered by the same nerve impulse simultaneously.

SEQUENCE OF EVENTS IN CANNON-BARD THEORY

1. Perception of the emotion-inducing stimulus

2. Thalamus is activated.

3. Thalamus sends messages to two sites i.e.,

a) The Autonomic nervous system, thereby producing a visceral response.

b) The cerebral cortex receives a message regarding the nature of emotion being

experienced.

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Introduction to Psychology PSY101

SEQUENCE OF EVENTS IN CANNON-BARD THEORY

Perception of

Emotion

Bodily

changes

After

receiving

Thalamus

Message to the cortex about

emotional experience

Major drawback

Research has shown that it is the hypothalamus and the limbic system that are responsible for

emotional experience, and not the thalamus!!!!!

3. Cognitive Labeling Theory/ Two Factor Theory of Emotions

· Pioneer: Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer (1962).

· According to them, emotions result from the physiological arousal as well as the cognitive

appraisal (evaluation) of the situation.

· Arousal comes first and is general in nature.

· Two forces jointly determine emotional experience:

Nonspecific kind of physiological arousal, and

The interpretation of the experience based on environmental cues.

· Both of these factors jointly determine the title/label of the emotion, and the meaning of one's reaction.

· We observe the environment and compare ourselves with others, and this help us identify our emotion.

Schachter's- Singer Theory of Emotions

Pounding

Heart /Perspiration

Stimulus elicits

(Arousal)

Felt emotion

Incoming car

Fear=

(Perception of

Emotional

Stimulus)

Arousal

`I am afraid'/going

to be hurt(cognitive appraisal/ label

Labeling of the emotional experience is entirely dependent on the experiencing individual__ one`s own

evaluation.

· Believed that physiological arousal determines the intensity of emotions.

· Theory includes the physiology cognitive processes as well as social psychology to investigate the nature of

emotions. Cognitive Appraisal Theory: Richard Lazarus

Given by Richard Lazarus and his colleagues in 1968

The theory maintains that emotional experience cannot solely be understood of its

own, but understanding the environment is to be evaluated.

Appraisal involves cognition, bodily responses and memory.

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Introduction to Psychology PSY101

Experienced Emotion

Richard Lazarus Gave two basic types of appraisal

i. Primary appraisal: Evaluate whether the situation is

threatening or not

ii. Secondary appraisal: Involve alternatives in order to

deal with the perceived threat

iii.Reappraisal: Includes re evaluating the situation and

alternative in order to see whether the judgment is true or

Cognition

not.

5. Cognitive Theory: Magda Arnold

Given in 1966; one of the first ones who use the concept of cognition in emotional state

His model is known as "Sequential model".

The steps involved in emotions are;

Perception; how the situation is being perceived.

Appraisal; Stimulus is beneficial or harmful to ourselves.

Determining emotions with regard to the prevailing situation.

Expressing emotions; Also accompanying physiological responses.

Finally, they all work to give idea whether to approach a situation or withdraw from it.

6. Opponent- Process Theory: Solomon and Corbit

Given by Richard Solomon and John Corbit in 1974.

Theory maintains that every emotional arousal has an opposite, i.e. when one type

of emotion is elicited, and then there must be an opposite that is there to suppress

or cancel it.

In this way the emotional arousal remain at some base- line.

Base line

State A

State B

Baseline

7. Activation Theory: Lindsley

(1951, 1957)

Based his theory by observing that reticular system activates the cortex region in the

brain that ultimately aroused/ excites the organism.

Believed that emotional arousal activate the reticular part of the brain present in the

brain stem, that ultimately sends impulses to the thalamus and cortex and bring

about emotional arousal.

And if the reticular part is at rest, then the emotional state is calm and relaxing.

8. Theory of Emotions: Albert Ellis

Given by American psychologist, Albert Ellis.

According to him, emotions do not result from a single cause, but originate from

three different ways.

oFirst, sensory- motor; involves brain and muscles.

oSecond, bio chemical stimulation; function to mediate processes of ANS, hypothalamus

and sub- cortical regions.

oThird, cognitive and thinking processes.

To him, emotions do not exist independently but involves several stages in order to take place.

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