PSYCHOLOGICAL MOTIVES:Curiosity, Need for affiliation

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Introduction to Psychology PSY101

Lesson 26

SECONDARY/ LEARNT/ PSYCHOLOGICAL MOTIVES

Besides the basic biological needs, the expression of psychological needs is also of great significance:

through society and culture in which one lives.

· Non-satisfaction of these motives may lead to mental illness.

Main psychological needs are:

i. Achievement

ii. Curiosity

iii. Need for appraisal

iv. Need for affiliation

v. Need for power

vi. Work as motive

1.Achievement

· Self- actualization or attaining excellence in relevant domain is the characteristic feature of

this motive.

· The need to achieve something, some object of desire, a goal, or position/status.

· The source of satisfaction is not just the achievement of the goal, but the very act of striving

for it too.

· The level of the need for achievement varies from person to person.

· Some are high and some low achievers.

· Competition is an important element of this need.

· Achievement motivation is a significant variable in a competitive society.

· People with high motivation: Take and overcome challenges in order to succeed rather than

finding an easy ways of achieving success.

· People with low motivation: Tends to avoid failure, finding easy way outs, not desire to take

difficult tasks.

· Methods of measuring achievement motivation:

· Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) is used; series of ambiguous pictures are presented to

the person and ask him to write a story on it.

· Instructions are given as that the story must have a beginning, middle and an end along with

the title; who are the people, what they are thinking, feeling, wanting etc; what is going on

and what will happen____ all depicts the needs, desires and motivation to succeed/ achieve.

· In short the subject describes the past, present and future along with the description of

characters and their thinking and motivation.

· Factors Contributing to the Need for Achievement

o Parents who are warm for their child as well as make high standards for their

child; encouragement is given on becoming independent.

o Siblings who are high achievers in their own domain.

2. Curiosity

· Think why a little child always wanting to break toys and things?

· Why children always asks questions of things they saw on TV, read it or listen from any one

· It is all their curiosity and need to explore in order to find answers of these puzzles.

· It is a significantly inborn but learned also: found in both humans and animals.

· Parents encourage their children's curiosity by satisfying their inquisitiveness.

· School also plays an important role; the teaching methodology adopted may encourage or discourage

curiosity.

3.Symbolic Reward/ Appraisal

Appraisal is a powerful motive for everyone; especially for children and animals

Praising words, petting after doing well etc all serve as symbolic reward for the learner.

The presence and the attitude of the more liked serves as a social reward for the

learner e.g. child with his mother, dog with its caretaker etc.

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Parent's approval and disapproval, liking and disliking towards the child all are

included in symbolic rewards.

4. Need for affiliation

Urge/ desire to main a relationship with other people; making friends, social contact with other

people.

Less desire to be isolated or alone.

Studies showed that females spend a larger span of time among friends and peers as compared to

males.

Although the need for affiliation is a universal phenomenon, cultural differences do exist in its

expression; some cultures have more group cohesiveness than others.

5. Need for Power

· Desire to influence, hold or ruling over others in order to be recognized as powerful individual.

· These types of people prefer to work in big organizations, businesses and other influential

professions.

· There also exists gender differences among males and females; men are more apt to take challenges

and respond quite aggressively irrespective of women who are socially restrained and traditional in

her behavior.

6. Work

· Most of the people spent large span of time in their life at work; for this reason, psychologists take it

as another powerful motive

· Work serves as a powerful motive because it satisfies other motives also such as biological motives of

hunger, shelter etc, sense of achievement, affiliation and decision-making.

Theories/Explanations of Motivation

i. Instinct Approaches

ii. Drive-reduction Approaches

iii. Arousal Approaches

iv. Incentive Approaches

v. Cognitive Approaches

vi. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Different approaches that focus upon the biological, social, cognitive, and psychological factors.

i. Instinct Theory

· There is a biologically determined behavior pattern that we are born with, known as instincts; biological

variables drive our behavior.

· All humans and animals exhibit certain innate tendencies, which are fixed, predetermined, and unlearned.

· Different behaviors are respective responses to specific instincts.

· Instincts are essential for the survival of the species.

· Instincts provide energy for action thus directing organism's behavior.

Shortcomings of Instinct Approaches

· Which are the primary and power instincts...18 as William Mc Dougall said or5759as Bernard proposed.

· If instincts are the main driving force, then how come different people behave differently under the

influence of the same instinct? e.g. hunger or heat.

ii.

Drive- Reduction Theory

· Our biological/ physiological needs create an aroused or tension producing state that motivates us to fulfill

them.

· When the basic biological requirements are lacking, and the need is unfulfilled, then drive/ arousal is

produced in the organism energizing it to obtain the requirement in order to satisfy the need.

Drive: An arousal or motivational tension that provides energy for action or behavior.

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Homeostasis: A stable, well-maintained state of internal biological balance is required for the proper

functioning of the body; homeostasis is the process whereby this balance is maintained.

Primary and Secondary Drives

Primary Drives: Entirely biological in nature i.e. hunger, thirst, sleep, sex, air etc

Primary drives are satisfied by reducing the underlying need e.g. hunger followed by food, thirst followed by

water.

Secondary Drives: These are psychological as well as social in nature. Prior learning and experiences are what

brings about such needs e.g. academic achievement.

Criticism

· What about behaviors directed towards maintenance, and even heightened, arousal?

· What about curiosity or risk-taking behavior?

· Is our behavior guided by drive-reduction alone, or by our goals too?

iii.

Arousal Theory

· A certain level of arousal and excitement is needed by our system.

· We try to maintain that level of stimulation and activity; the maintenance may require off and on reduction

or increase in the existing level, depending upon the circumstances.

· When our arousal state becomes too high, it needs to come down for optimal functioning and vice versa.

· Too high a motivational arousal may affect performance negatively; it may produce anxiety and irritability in

the organism.

· Similarly too low an arousal may also have adverse effect e.g. performance of a person suffering from

depression.

· A consistent, well balanced, and leveled arousal is needed for the optimal functioning e.g. in case of exams,

athletics, interviews.

iv. Incentive Theory

· Motivational state of the organism is understood and explained in terms of positive or negative

environmental stimuli.

· As opposed to the drive- reduction and arousal theory, this theory explains motivation in terms of external

events that stimulates/ energizes the organism's behavior, rather than innate instincts or drives.

· Characteristics of the external environment are important variables in a person's motivation.

· Incentives are rewards that energize and drive our behavior.

· Any thing that provides us with a reward triggers motivation for action.

· Incentives may generate behavior even in the absence of an active, un satisfied, instinct or drive e.g. how

can we eat a bowl full of ice cream even.

· When our stomach is full after a heavy meal?

· But in many cases drives and incentives go together and have a deeper effect.

Criticism

· What about the motivational process when an individual tries to fulfill needs although there is no apparent

incentive present? E.g. working even when paid very little, and the job too is not matching with one's

aptitude.

· What about behaviors when there is no apparent incentive available, in fact threat is involved? e.g. helping

the people stranded in a house on fire.

v. Cognitive Theory of Motivation

Theories that give importance to the cognitive processes of the individual in explaining motivational process;

thoughts, feelings, expectations, understanding and evaluating all are important when explaining the

motivation of the person.

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Expectancy- Value Theory

Two types of cognitive processes underlie human behavior.

I. Expectation: The expectation, hope, or anticipation that our behavior will help us attain a certain goal.

II. Value: The perception, appraisal, or understanding of the value of the goal to us.

· The level of expectation and the value attached to it, together, determine the level of motivation.

· In case of a high expectation along with high value, the motivation will also be higher.

· But if any of the two is weak or low, the corresponding motivation will also be low

· Can you see the two operating in your exam and study behavior?????

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation

Cognitive theories differentiate between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.

Intrinsic motivation: Motivation from within, or Internal motivation that energizes the person to satisfy or

accomplish the goal; the goal is to attain enjoyment and personal satisfaction, in which no external tangible

reward is involved e.g. altruistic behavior.

Extrinsic motivation: Revolves around the tangible rewards such as money, social contacts.

· Studies shows that intrinsic motivation produces better results in terms of performance than the extrinsic

motivation.

· When extrinsic motivation is more for the desired behavior than the intrinsic one, and it remains like that

for long, then the intrinsic motivation eventually declines.

· e.g. a child has been given reward for doing neat and tidy homework, as he is less intrinsically motivated;

eventually the entire focus of the child in getting reward after doing tidy homework rather than doing it

otherwise.

· Teachers and parents should use extrinsic motivation, but with great care.

· Extrinsic motivation can be used to enhance the motivational level but not at the cost of intrinsic

motivation.

vi. Abraham Harold Maslow: 1908-1970

· American psychologist and leading exponent of humanistic approach

· Gave comprehensive theory of motivation.

· Found the prevalent psychology to be too pessimistic and negatively oriented.

Key Points of Maslow's Theory

· Psychology and the psychologist should look at the positive side of the human beings.

· There must be more to living than just being battered by a hostile environment, or by depraved instincts----

which may actually be leading to self-destruction.

· People's needs are not low level and base. We have positive needs that

may become neutral in the worst cases, but will not turn negative or

base.

· Human behavior does respond to needs but we will be wrong in

Self

saying that all our needs are only physiological in nature

Actualiza

· Needs motivate human action; such needs are very few in

tion

number.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Esteem

· Basically a stage theory.

· The needs at one level have to be met in order for one to

move on to higher order.

Love and Belongingness

· The needs at the lowest/primary/base level are the

physiological needs, whereas the highest order needs

are the self-actualization needs.

Safety

· Self-Actualization: Most advanced human need

based on the desire to grow and utilize one's

potential up to the optimal level.

Physiological Needs

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Introduction to Psychology PSY101

Categories of Needs

Metaneeds: based on a desire to grow rather than for meeting a deficiency: expressed in the need for self

actualization

Deficiency needs: The absence of the underlying requirements triggers these needs e.g. physiological needs,

love needs, or esteem needs

Interactions and needs of Behavior

Physiological needs: Fulfilled through: hunger/food; Pathology associated=over eating, anorexia

Safety needs: Fulfilled through: profession, job; Pathology associated= Phobias

Love and belongingness Fulfilled through: Marriage, friendship; Pathology associated= Antisocial personality

Esteem needs: Fulfilled through: Awards, honors, scholarships; Pathology associated =Depression

Self-actualization needs: Fulfilled through: Painting, writing,

singing:

Pathology

Associated

=Isolation, alienation, cynicism.

If expanded, Maslow's hierarchy would appear like this:

Transcendenc

Criticism against Maslow's theory

Although a comprehensive and well formed

theory, it has been criticized at some

points:

· Can we actually, for all case,

Self-actualization: fulfilling

distribute and neatly order these

Potential, having meaningful

needs?

· There is little empirical

Esthetic Needs: order,

evidence

support

Maslow's way of ranking

Cognitive

needs.

Esteem Needs

Attachment Needs

Safety Needs

Biological/Physiological Needs

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