COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT:Socio- Cultural Factor, The Individual and the Group

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Introduction to Psychology PSY101

Lesson 11

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Cognitive development is the process of the development of children understanding of the world as

a function of age and experience.

Development of Cognition and Cognitive Ability

Cognition is the process of knowing as well as what is known. It includes "knowledge" which is innate/

inborn and present in the form of brain structures and functions. We `remember' the physical environment

in which we were brought up and develop perceptual constructs or knowledge accordingly (seeing, hearing,

sounds etc

Disciplines Interested in the Study and Use of Cognition

The interest in human cognition and its development has been developed and applied in a variety

of scientific disciplines:

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Anthropologists focus on, and measure, how cognition develops in different cultures.

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Sociologists study how cognitions are acquired and used in various groups and institutional

settings.

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Computer scientists target to create `artificial intelligence'.

Psychologists are interested in a better understanding of the human cognitive ability and

potentials, how it is utilized in different situations and at different stages.

Nature of Cognition

The very word cognitive refers to the process of knowing as well as the known. Cognition thus, has at least

two main aspects/ features i.e.,

i. Cognition means `mental processes' that people use to gather/ acquire knowledge, and

ii. Cognition refers to the knowledge that has been gathered/ acquired subsequently used in mental

processes

Mental processes

Cognition and Knowledge

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There is probably no aspect of human life and behavior

that is void of all sorts of cognition...not even sleep

Knowledge

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All human intellectual activities and potentials, i.e. thinking,

communicating, problem solving, and learning require mental processes and

knowledge

Factors Influencing the Cognitive Development

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Long term memory and information processing or working memory are traits of the human

infant which exist and operate much earlier than when one is aware of it; these are intact even

before birth but these contents of memory are unknown to consciousness.

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The ability to control `mental processes' and `innate/ inborn knowledge' develops after birth

and this may occur largely due to the interaction of the child with the physical environment

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The child's interaction and bonding with the people around has a deep impact. Most often

parents especially the mother, also including the caregivers/caretakers, are the most significant

connections for the development of cognition.

Significant Influences on Cognition

Socio- Cultural Factor

� Given and debated in the early 1900s socio-cultural approach has now regained interest among

cognitive scientists

Introduction to Psychology PSY101

�

It states that cognitive ability does not start with the anatomy/ biology of the individual or only

with the environment: the culture and society into which the individual is born provide the most

important resources/ clues for human cognitive development.

� They provide the context into which the individual begins his experience of the world.

� Social groups help in person's cognitive development by placing value/ importance on learning

certain skills, thereby providing all important motivation that the person needs and requires in

order to learn and exhibit those skills or behaviors. This results in cognitive development

� One perspective about cognitive ability suggest that there is some sort of innate potential existing

within an individual

Another suggests that there is potential within the socio- cultural context for development of the individual.

The individual is born into a society of potential intellect. Knowledge will develop largely based on the

evolution of intellect within the society and culture.

Social Nature of Mind

� Beside other psychological functions, the most important and influential is the interaction between

individuals.

� In the beginning, the child has no means of understanding/ expressing or communicating his

experiences. But as time passes, the teachings of parents and other family members enable a child

to understand the world in which he lives. Knowledge is considered to be the experiences and the

values that parents/ caregivers pass on to their off springs. It reflects their particular social and

cultural norms and standards, which are incorporated in their understanding of their culture.

Language and Cognitive Ability

� The main and most important tool in acquiring cognitions in any culture is its language through

which an organized body of knowledge is transmitted as "cognitive abilities". By learning the

language, the child is able to share knowledge and experiences with the people he interacts with.

� Early learning takes place through internalizing and interpreting the world.

� Afterwards, the child is able to use those internalized skills such as language that have been taught

to him by his parents, culture, or society. It further on helps him to think and function

independently

� Language, including its written form, is the unifying tool for any culture. As language starts to

develops, so do the social norms, cultural beliefs, and values

Motivation, Cognition and Learning

� It is believed that cognitive ability alone cannot account for achievement; motivation is also

important in acquiring/ attaining cognitive skills and abilities.

� People learn information that corresponds to, and is in accordance with, their view of the world.

They learn skills that are meaningful to them. e.g. children who are born in a poor family may not

give any attention or importance to the formal education and as adults, they may pass on similar

beliefs and attitudes to their off springs.

� Motivation determines whether or not one is capable of learning. Whether one learns well or not,

depends on one's own view and that affects the ability to learn. The motivational condition largely

depends on the way the culture responds to achievements and failures. There are culturally

developed attitudes about the probability of learning successfully after one has initially failed to

learn. These attitudes can greatly affect future learning.

The Individual and the Group

� These factors also influence the extent or direction of development.

� The culture of the individual, the community, the neighborhood, social organizations, and the

family, all influence the experience of the individual. But these experiences have a certain

uniqueness of their own and they may be perceived and viewed differently by different people.

Cognitive Development

�

Cognitive development is the development of the `thinking' and `organizing systems' of the

brain. It involves

Introduction to Psychology PSY101

�

Language,

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Mental imagery,

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Thinking,

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Reasoning,

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Problem solving and

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Memory development

Jean Piaget's (1896-1980) Theory of Cognitive Development

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Piaget was a Swiss psychologist. He was a very keen observer from the very beginning; got

published his first research paper at age 15.

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As a result of his study of philosophy and logic, he became interested in epistemology i.e.,

knowledge and knowing; the interest in observation and epistemology made a foundation of

his theory of cognitive development.

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Piaget was influenced by Henri Bergson's Creative Evolution, unlike most of the other

psychologists who were impressed by Darwin's theory of evolution. Bergson believed in divine

agency instead of chance as the force behind evolution: life possesses an inherent creative

impulse.

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Piaget did his doctorate in Biological Science, but later became interested in psychology

especially abnormal psychology.

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He secured a position in Alfred Binet's laboratory In Paris where he got a chance to observe

children's performance, their right and wrong answers.

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Piaget's work and observation generated an interest in children's mental processes.

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The real shift took place when he started observing his own children from birth onwards. He

kept records of their behavior and used them to trace the origins of children's thoughts to their

behavior as babies; later on he became interested in the thought of adolescents as well

Piagetian Method of Investigation

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Known as the Clinical Approach; a form of a structured observation.

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Piaget used to present problems/tasks to children of different ages, asked them to explain their

answers. Their explanations were further probed through carefully phrased question.

Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development

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Cognitive Development takes place in stages.

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The organization of behavior is qualitatively different in different Stages. Children throughout

the world pass through a series of four stages of cognitive development in a fixed order.

Essential Points of Piaget's Theory

1. The stages emerge in a sequence. There is a constant order of succession for their emergence.

2. The progressive development of mental structures can be explained by neither heredity nor

environment by itself.

Key Terms in Piaget's Theory

According to Piaget, children's thinking develops through two simultaneous processes: assimilation and

accommodation

� Assimilation means the incorporation of new knowledge into existing schemes.

� Accommodation means the modification of the child's existing schemes to incorporate new

knowledge that does not fit in the scheme.

� Schemes: patterns of action that are involved in the acquisition and structuring of knowledge

e.g. grasping, throwing, and rolling

Introduction to Psychology PSY101

Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

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Sensorimotor stage

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Preoperational stage

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Concrete operational stage

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Formal operational stage

Sensorimotor stage

Age: Infancy; Birth-2 years

Major Characteristic:

� Thought confined to action schemes.

� Development of object permanence.

� Development of motor skills.

� Little or no capacity for symbolic representation.

Preoperational Stage

Age: Preschool; 2-7 years

Major characteristics:

� Representational thought.

� Thought is intuitive not logical.

� Development of language and symbolic thinking takes place.

� Thinking is egocentric.

Concrete Operational Stage

Age: Childhood; 7-11 years

Major Characteristics

� Thought is systematic and logical, but only with regard to concrete objects.

� Development of conservation, and mastery of concept of reversibility.

Formal Operational Stage

Age: Adolescence and adulthood; 11 years onward

Major Characteristics:

� Abstract and logical thought develops.

� The person can deal with the abstract and the absent.

Erik Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development

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Student and follower of Sigmund Freud.

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Left his native land, Germany, in 1930's and immigrated to America, where he studied Native

American traditions of human development, and continued his work as a psychoanalyst.

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Broke with his teacher over the fundamental view about what motivates/ drives human

behavior. For Freud, it was `biology' or more specifically the biological instincts of life and

aggression (Eros and Thanatos). For Erikson, the most important force that drives human

behavior and which helps in the development of personality was "social interaction".

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His developmental theory of the "Eight Stages of Man" (Erikson, 1950) was unique and

different in the sense that it covered the entire lifespan rather than `childhood' and `adolescent

development'.

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He believed that social environment combined with biological maturation results in a set of

"crises" that must be resolved.

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The individual passes through the "sensitive period" and crisis at different stages, which has to

be resolved successfully before a new crisis is presented. The results of the resolution, whether

successful or not, are passed on to the next crisis and provide the foundation for its resolution

Introduction to Psychology PSY101

Erikson's Psychosocial Developmental Stages

Basic Trust vs. Mistrust (Oral-Sensory Stage): Birth 18months: Infancy

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The infant develops a sense of who and when to trust.

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He learns when to protect oneself and be cautious.

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt: 18 months to 3 years: Early Childhood

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The child develops a sense of independence and is able to understand and recognize his

limitations. If independence is encouraged, he develops a sense of autonomy.

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If the child is overly restricted, over-protected, or criticized it may result into self-doubt and

shame. Shame occurs when child is overly self-conscious when negatively exposed. Self-doubt

occurs when parents overly shame the child, e.g. about elimination.

Initiative vs. Guilt: 3 to 6 years: late Childhood

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The child is able to tryout and explore various things.

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Indulges in various activities, both motor and intellectual.

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Guilt arises after doing the negative acts e.g. aggression.

Industry vs. Inferiority: 6 to 11 years: School Age

o Child is busy in

� Building,

� Creating, and

� Accomplishing

o Receives systematic instruction as well as fundamentals of technology.

o Learns norms and standards of the society in which he lives.

o Socially decisive age. The child gains self- esteem.

Identity vs. Role confusion: Adolescence

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The person has a coherent sense of self.

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Plans to actualize one's abilities or becomes confused when unable to accomplish task.

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Problems may result in impulsive attitude or extended immaturity.

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Indecisiveness may occur.

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In extreme cases there can be a possibility of antisocial behavior.

Intimacy vs. Isolation: 18 to 25 years: Young adulthood (beginning in the early 20s and may extend to the 40s)

Young adults focus on

� Maintaining one's individuality

� Making friends

� Relationships and intimacy

Adulthood Generativity vs. Stagnation: Middle adulthood (40-60 years)

o Age of;

� Creativity

� Productivity

� Concern about guiding and helping the next generation

� Concern for others or self-indulgence

� Impoverishment of self

Ego Integrity vs. despair: Old age

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The person develops a sense of acceptance of life as it was lived.

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Importance of the people and relationships that individual developed over the lifespan.

Introduction to Psychology PSY101

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Comes to terms with approaching death.

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Some sort of despair is inevitable.

Lawrence Kohlberg's theory of Moral development

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A psychologist __ born in Bronxville New York.

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Served as a professor at Harvard University.

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Started as a developmental psychologist in the early 1970s and became famous for his later

work in moral education and moral reasoning.

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His theory emphasizes on how moral reasoning develops in stages___ similar with the theory

of Piaget's cognitive development.

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Like Piaget, Kohlberg believed that development is flourished by social interaction.

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Moral education can be taught in formal education by confronting people with moral dilemmas

that evoke/ arise cognitive conflicts.

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According to Kohlberg, discussion over these dilemmas promotes development, which further

helps in higher stages of moral reasoning __ showing benefits of the higher stages of reasoning.

He and others formulated dilemmas for this purpose.

Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development

Moral reasoning, which Kohlberg thought is the basis for ethical behavior, has developmental stages. There

are six identifiable stages of moral development. These stages can be classified into three levels.

Stages of Moral Development

Level 1

Obedience and Punishment Orientation

ii.

Self- interest orientation

Level 2

Interpersonal accords

ii.

Conformity (good boy/Good girl attitude)

iii.

Authority

iv.

Social order orientation (law and order morality)

Level 3

Social contract orientation

ii.

Universal ethical principles (principled conscience)

Levels of Moral Development

a. Pre-Conventional

o Common in children, although adults can also exhibit this level of reasoning.

o Judging the morality of an action by its direct consequences.

o Pre-conventional level is divided into two stages:

� Stage One: Obedience and punishment orientation

� Stage two: self-interest orientation

o In stage one, individuals focus on the direct consequences that their actions will result into. They

see and analyze as to what actions are morally wrong and, if the person commits them, gets

punishment for it.

o In stage two, right behavior is what is defined as, `what is in one's own best interest'. Limited or

little interest is shown about other's needs.

o Concern for others is not based on loyalty or intrinsic respect.

b. Conventional

o Can easily be seen in adults and older children.

Introduction to Psychology PSY101

Persons, who reason in a conventional way, judge the morality of actions by comparing these

actions to social rules norms, standards, and expectations.

The conventional level is divided into two further stages:

� Stage three: conformity orientation

� Stage four: law-and-order morality

Individual, whose moral reasoning is in stage three, seeks approval from others. Tries to be a `good

boy' or `good girl', having learned that there is inherent value in doing so.

Judging the morality of an action by evaluating its consequences.

In stage four, individual thinks that it is important to obey the laws and social conventions because

it is important in maintaining society and thus does not require approval which is important in stage

three.

c. Post-Conventional

o The post-conventional level is divided into two stages;

� Stage five: social contract orientation

� Stage six: principled conscience

o In stage five, people have certain principles or beliefs to which they may attach more value than

laws e.g. human rights or social justice.

o In the sixth and final stage, moral reasoning is based on the use of `abstract reasoning' using

`universal ethical principles'.

o Although Kohlberg insisted that sixth stage exists but he had difficulty finding people who used it.

It appears that people rarely use it, if, ever they reach this sixth stage of Kohlberg's model

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