Memory Organization, Capacity, Density, Signals and Basic Operations, Read, Write, Address, data Signals

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CS302 - Digital Logic & Design

Lesson No. 39

MEMORY

Sequential circuits can not operate without a memory element. Memory elements used

in Sequential circuits are relatively small and store few binary bits of information. Large

memories capable of storing very large amounts of information are used in Computer systems.

A computer which executes an application program has the application stored in the form of

program instructions in large memories.

Memories store data in units that have one, four, eight or higher number of bits.

Smallest unit of binary data is a bit. Data is also handled in a 4-bit unit called a Nibble. In many

applications the data is handled as an 8-bit unit called a byte, which is a combination of two 4-

bit units that are called Nibbles. A complete unit of information is sometimes called a Word and

consists of one or more bytes.

Each storage element of a memory can either store a logic 0 or a logic 1 and is called a

cell. Memories are arranged in an array and each cell can be identified by specifying a row

and a column number. Figure 39.1. Each square in the diagram represents a memory cell

capable of storing a binary 1 or 0. The first eight bits of binary information 11001010 in the first

row are stored in eight cells. The addresses of the eight consecutive cells staring from the left

most cell are (1,1), (1,2), (1,3), (1,4), (1,5), (1,6), (1,7) and (1,8) representing the first row and

columns 1 to 8 respectively. Individual cells at row 5 and column 3 have a binary 1 and a cell

at row 6 and column 7 have a binary 0 stored.

Figure 39.1

64-cell Memory Array

Memory Organization

The Memory array can be organized in several ways depending on the unit of data.

The 64-cell array organized as 8 x 8 cell array is considered as an 8 byte memory, that is, it

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has eight locations and each location stores a single byte. The 64-cell array organized as 4 x

16 cell array stores 16 nibbles and if organized as 1 x 64 stores 64 single bit values. The 4 x

16 memory array allows data to be accessed in the form of 4-bit nibbles. The 1 x 64 array

allows data to be accessed in units of 1 bit. Figure 39.2.

Figure 39.2

Memory Organized as 4 x 16 and 1 x 64 Arrays

A memory is identified by the number of units it can store times the unit size, thus the 8

x 8 memory is identified as an 8 Byte memory, the 16 x 4 memory is used as a 16 Nibble

memory and the 64 x 1 is known as a 64 bit memory. Practical memory chips are organized as

16 K x 8 memory, storing 16K bytes or 16 x 1024 = 16384 bytes. A 32 K x 4 memory stores

32K nibbles or 32 x 1024 = 32768 nibbles.

Memory Capacity and Density

Each memory array has a maximum capacity to store information in the form of bits.

Thus a 16 K x 8 memory, stores 16K bytes or 16 x 1024 = 16384 bytes or 131072 bits. A 32 K

x 4 memory stores 32K nibbles or 32 x 1024 = 32768 nibbles or 131072 bits. The total number

of cells in each case is 131072. Memory density on the other hand specifies the number of bits

stored per unit area. More the number of bits stored in a unit area more dense the memory,

that is, more bits are stored in less space. The capacity and the density of a memory are

determined by the total number of cells implemented in a unit area.

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Memory Signals and Basic Operations on Memory

Two basic operations are performed on memories, that is, reading of information from

the memory and writing of data to the memory. To support the two read and write operations

memories provide several signals. Figure 39.3.

Memory

Select

Address

Decoder

Memory Array

Address

Data Bus

Bus

Read

Write

Figure 39.3

Block Diagram of a Read-write Memory

Read and Write Signals

Read/Write signals are required to configure the memory for read and write operation.

Memory chips have a single Read/Write signal. When the signal is set to high it allows data to

be read from the memory. When the signal is set to low data is written into the memory. Some

memory chips have two separate Read and Write signals. The read and write signals are

separately asserted to control the Read and Write operation.

Address Signals

Address signals are required to specify the location in the memory from which

information is accessed (read or written). A set of parallel address lines known as the address

bus carry the address information. The number of bits (lines) comprising the address bus

depends upon the size of the memory. For example, a memory having four locations to store

data has four unique addresses (00, 01, 10, 11) specified by a 2-bit address bus. The size of

the address bus depends upon the total addressable locations specified by the formula 2n,

where n is the number of bits. Thus 24=16 (n=4) specifies 4 bits to uniquely identify 16 different

locations.

Data Signals

Data lines are required to retrieve the information from the memory array during a read

operation and to provide the data that is to be stored in the memory during a write operation.

As the memory reads or writes one data unit at a time therefore the data lines should be equal

to the number of data bits stored at each addressable location in the memory. A memory

organized as a byte memory reads or writes byte data values, therefore the number of data

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lines or the size of the data bus should be 8-bits or 1 byte. A memory organized to store nibble

data values requires a 4-bit wide data bus. Generally, the wider the data bus more data can be

accessed at each read or write operation.

Memory Select or Enable Signal

In a computer system there are more than one memory chips to store program

information. At any particular instant a read or write operation is carried out on a single

addressable location. The unique location can only be accessed in one of the several memory

chips, thus a single memory chip has to be selected before a read or write operation can be

carried out. All memory chips have a chip enable or chip select signal which has to be

activated before the memory can be accessed.

Memory Read operation

Memory Read operation is carried out by first selecting the memory chip by activating

the Memory Select signal. The Read signal is asserted to configure the memory circuitry for

reading data from the memory. An address (100) is applied on the Address Lines. The internal

address decoder of the memory decodes the address and selects one unique row from which

data is read. Figure 39.4.

Figure 39.4 Memory Read Operation

The address of the location in the memory from which data is to be read is supplied by

the microprocessor. The microprocessor stores the address in its address buffer. The data

read from the memory is stored in a data buffer inside the microprocessor. In the diagram

shown, a microprocessor places an address 100 on its external address bus connected to the

address lines of the memory. The internal address decoder of the memory decodes the

address 100 and activates a row select line which selects the row location 4. The data

(00110001) at the location is read from the memory and placed on the data bus where it is

latched by the microprocessor and stored in its data buffer.

Memory Write operation

Memory Write operation is carried out by first selecting the memory chip by activating

the Memory Select signal. The Write signal is asserted to configure the memory circuitry for

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writing data to the memory. An address (011) is placed on the Address Lines by the

microprocessor. The internal address decoder of the memory decodes the address and

selects one unique row select line which selects the row location 3. The data (10110010) to be

written to the selected memory location is placed on the external data bus by the

microprocessor which is stored in the selected location. Figure 39. 5

Memory

Address

Data

Select

Buffer

011

10110010

Address

Decoder

1 1 0 1

0 00 1

0 1

0 1 1 0

1 0

1 01 1

00 1 1

0 1

Address

0 1 00 1

Data Bus

1 0

1 00 1 0

Bus

00 1 00

Read

Write

Figure 39.5

Memory Write Operation

Memory Types

Two major categories of memory chips are the Random Access Memory (RAM) and

Read-Only Memory (ROM). RAM allows a read or write operation to be carried out at any

address. All locations are accessible in equal time. RAM memories do not store permanent

data. As soon as the power supply to the memory chip is turned off, the entire data stored in

the memory is lost permanently. RAM memories are also known as volatile memories as they

lose data when the power is turned off.

ROM chips retain data permanently even if the power to a ROM chip is turned off.

ROM chips are also known as non-volatile memory chips due to their ability to retain data

permanently. Since ROM chips are read only, therefore user can not write any information to

ROM chips. ROM chips are programmed by the manufacturer and contain important

information which is required to start (Boot Up) the computer.

Random Access Memory (RAM)

RAM is divided into two types, Static RAM which uses flip-flops as storage elements

and Dynamic RAM which uses capacitors to store binary information. In a Static RAM each

cell which is capable of storing a binary 0 or 1 is made up of a flip-flop which retains

information as long as power continues to be supplied to the flip-flop. Dynamic RAM on the

other hand uses a capacitor to store a single bit of data. To store binary 1, the capacitor is

charged and to store binary 0, the capacitor is in the uncharged state. Capacitors over a

period of time lose their charge and unless the Capacitors are refreshed the information stored

by the capacitor is lost. Dynamic memories periodically charge their capacitors by

implementing a Refresh cycle. Static Memories are faster than Dynamic memories therefore

data access in Static Memories is faster as compared to Dynamic Memories. Dynamic

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memories on the other hand have a high density and can store much more data per unit area

and at a lesser cost. Dynamic memories have a high storage density, as capacitors are

simpler to implement and occupy a very small semiconductor area as compared to flip-flops.

Static RAM

Each cell of a Static RAM is implemented using a flip-flop which is implemented using

several MOSFET transistors. External power is required to operate the transistors. As long as

the external power is applied the static memory cell retains the data. The circuit of a single flip-

flop based cell which can store a binary 0 or 1 is shown. Figure 39.6.

Figure 39.6

Circuit diagram of a Static Memory Cell based on a flip-flop

The flip-flop used to store a binary bit works like a latch. When the SEL signal is

activated, the output buffer is enabled allowing data to be read out from the memory cell.

When both the SEL and W(rite) signals are activated the latch is configured in the transparent

mode and the data applied at the Data In line flows through the latch to the output. The Data In

and Data Out lines can be connected together to form a bi-directional line which does not

cause any problems with the reading or writing of data. This is possible as the read and write

operations takes place at different time intervals.

The flip-flop based cells are combined to form an array. Additional logic is added to

select cells at appropriate locations and to read and write data. A 3 x 8 decoder decodes a 3-

bit address to select any one of the eight locations comprising of a group of 4-cells. For

example, when the address is 000, the first output line of the 3 x 8 decoder is activated which

is connected to the SEL input of the four latches in the first row. Similarly, address 111

activates the eighth output line of the 3 x 8 decoder which selects the four latches in the last

row (location). The memory array has four Data In lines to store the 4-bit data values at the

eight locations. Data In 3 and Data In 0 represents the most and least significant bits of the 4-

bit data respectively. The four Data In lines connect the Data In inputs of all the latches in each

column respectively. The memory array also has four Data Out lines, each data line connects

the output of each latch in a column. The read and write operations are controlled through the

three signals W, CS and OE. The Chip Select (CS) signal along with the Output Enable (OE)

signal enable each of the four tri-state buffers connected to end of each Data Out line. When

data is to be read from a memory array, the memory chip is selected and the output enabled.

The Write (W) signal along with the CS signal are used to write data into any 4-bit location.

Figure 39.7.

To write data 1001 at the 6th memory location, the address A2, A1 and A0 bits are set to

110 which select the 6th row of the memory array. The data 1001 is placed at the four Data In

lines respectively. The CS and W signals are activated which set the four latches in the sixth

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row to transparent mode allowing data 1001 applied at the four Data In lines to be available at

the Q outputs of the four latches respectively. As soon as the CS and W signals are

deactivated, the latches store the data value.

A 16K x 8 memory is shown. Figure 39.8. The memory is capable of storing byte

values in 16 x 1024 locations. To address these unique locations, fourteen address lines are

required. The memory has eight bi-directional data lines through which data is read/written at

selected memory locations. The three CS, WE and OE are shown to be active low.

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DATA IN

3x8

Decoder

OUT

SEL

OUT

SEL

OUT

SEL

OUT

SEL

OUT

SEL

OUT

SEL

OUT

SEL

OUT

SEL

DATA OUT

Figure 39.7 Internal Structure of a 8 x 4 Static RAM

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Figure 39. 8

16K x 8 Static RAM

402

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