THE 555 TIMER: Race Conditions, Asynchronous, Ripple Counters

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CS302 - Digital Logic & Design

Lesson No. 26

THE 555 TIMER

The 555 Timer is a versatile and widely used device which can be configured as a

mono-stable One-Shot or as an Astable multivibrator. An Astable multivibrator is known as an

Oscillator which does not have any stable state. Therefore it continuously changes from one

unstable state to the other without any external trigger.

Timing Problem in flip-flop circuits

In synchronous digital circuits the output of one flip-flop is connected to the input of a

second flip-flop, either directly or through logic gates. Both the flip-flops are triggered through a

common clock signal connected to the clock input of both the flip-flops. This leads to a

potential timing problem as shown in figure 26.1.

Figure 26.1a

J-K flip-flop circuit with potential timing problem

Figure 26.1b

Timing diagram of J-K flip-flop circuit with potential timing problem

Assume the initial outputs of flip-flop 1 and 2 are at logic high and low respectively.

When there is a high to low clock transition t1, the output of flip-flop 1 toggles to logic low. The

high to low clock transition at the clock input of Flip-flop 2 also occurs at the same instant t1.

During the interval t1 and t2 the output of flip-flop is changing from logic high to logic low and

will go to logic low after a propagation delay tPHL. The input to flip-flop 2 is changing from logic

high to low during the time interval t1 and t2. The input to flip-flop 2 should be held stable for a

minimum hold time requirement tH. If the input is not held stable for tH interval the output can

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not be guaranteed to be logic high. Output of flip-flop 2 will be set to logic high state if tPHL time

of flip-flop 1 is more than the tH of flip-flop 2. Practically flip-flops have hold times that are 5

nsec or less, most have tH = 0. Therefore, flip-flop circuits such as the one shown connected in

the diagram work reliably.

Clock Skew

One of the most common problems in synchronous circuits is `Clock Skew'. One type

of Clock Skew occurs when the same clock signal arrives at different times at different clock

inputs to propagation delay, which causes different flip-flops to change states asynchronously

leading to unpredictable outputs. Figure 26.2

Figure 26.2a Flip-flop circuit with potential timing problem due to Clock Skew

Figure 26.2b

Timing diagram of J-K flip-flop circuit with Clock Skew

In the circuit diagram both the flip-flops are connected to the same clock signal.

However, the clock signal to the second flip-flop is delayed by the NAND and NOT gates. On a

high to low clock transition both the flip-flops change their output states assuming that the

initial output state of each flip-flop is logic low. The Clock Skew is the delay in the two clock

signals by a time interval t1 t2 or t3 t4. At the high to low transition of clock 1 signal the output of

F1 toggles from logic low to logic high after a propagation delay of tPLH. If the propagation

delay of F1 is less than the clock skew then at the high to low clock transition of clock 2 the J

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input of flip-flop is set to logic high and at the clock transition the output F2 is set to logic high.

If the propagation delay tPLH of F1 is of a longer duration than the Clock Skew, the J input of

the flip-flop is at logic low at the high to low transition of clock 2 the output of F2 remains

unchanged.

Timing problems occurring due to clock skew are intermittent in nature and therefore

are difficult to detect. The clock skew can vary with changes in temperature, power supply

voltages, length of connections and loading effects. Problems caused due to clock skew can

be eliminated by equalizing clock delays to different parts of the circuit.

Race Conditions

Race conditions are said to occur when multiple internal variables change due to

change in one input variable. Depending upon the sequence in which the internal variables

change, the circuit output operates erratically. Figure 26.3. In the timing diagram shown, if the

Q and Q output high to low transitions are slightly delayed, they coincide with the clock low to

high transitions resulting in short duration pulses which are difficult to detect. The glitches due

to race condition can be avoided by using a negative-edge triggered flip-flop instead of the

positive-edge-triggered flip-flop used.

Figure 26.3a

J-K flip-flop circuit with potential race condition

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Figure 26.3b

Timing Diagram showing glitches due to race conditions

Figure 26.3c

Timing Diagram of negative-edge triggered flip-flop avoiding glitches

Counters

Counter circuits based on flip-flops are widely used in Digital Systems. Besides

counting, these counters are used as frequency dividers and with minor changes in the circuit

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they are used as shift registers. Counters are classified as Asynchronous and Synchronous

counters. Asynchronous counters as the name indicates are not triggered simultaneously. The

multiple flip-flops that are connected together to form a counter circuit do not receive the

triggering clock signal simultaneously. The flip-flop that represents the least significant count

bit of the n-bit counter is connected to the clock signal, the remaining flip-flops receive their

clock signals form the outputs of the preceding flip-flops connected in the counter circuit. The

clock signal thus ripples through successive flip-flops. Synchronous counters on the other

hand have all the clock inputs of the multiple flip-flops connected to a common clock signal. All

the flip-flops in a Synchronous counter receive clock signals simultaneously.

Asynchronous and Synchronous are further classified as up counters or down counters

depending upon the sequence in which they count. They are further classified in terms of the

number of states or the range of numbers to which the counters can count.

Asynchronous Counters (Ripple Counters)

Asynchronous counters are implemented by connecting together multiple flip-flops

together. The triggering clock signal is connected to the clock input of the first flip-flop. The

clock inputs of the remaining flip-flops are connected to the Q or Q output of the previous flip-

flop. On a clock transition at the clock input of the first flip-flop the output state of the flip-flop

changes. With the transition in the output state of the first flip-flop, there is also a transition at

the clock input to the second flip-flop as the output of the first flip-flop is connected to the clock

input of the second flip-flop. Due to the clock transition the second flip-flop changes its output

state. The change in the output state of the second flip-flop occurs after the first flip-flop

changes its state. Similarly, the last flip-flop connected in the counter circuit changes its output

state after the output of the flip-flop connected to its clock input has changed it state. The

outputs of the flip-flops change in a sequence as the clock signal propagates through the flip-

flops as they change their output states one after the other. The Asynchronous counters are

also known as Ripple Counters due to the rippling effect of the clock signal.

A three-bit Asynchronous counter circuit is shown in Figure 26.4. In the circuit diagram

shown the Q output of each is connected to the clock input of the next flip-flop. The J-K inputs

of each of the three flip-flop are connected to logic high allowing the flip-flop to toggle their

output state on a high to low transition at their clock input.

The output state of the first flip-flop toggles at every positive to negative clock transition

in intervals t1 to t8. The output F1 of the second flip-flop toggles at intervals t2, t4, t6 and t8 on

every high to low transition of the output F0. The output F2 toggles its output state at intervals t4

and t8 on a high to low transition of the flip-flop output F1.

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Figure 26.4a 3-bit Asynchronous Up-Counter

CLOCK

Input

Output

Figure 26.4b Timing Diagram of a 3-bit Asynchronous Up-Counter

Input

Output

Clock

Pulses

Table 26.1

Output State of a 3-bit Asynchronous Up-Counter

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Propagation Delay

The timing diagram shown in figure 26.4b doesn't take into account the propagation

delay that occurs between each clock input and the corresponding toggling output. The timing

diagram which takes into account the propagation delay is shown in figure 26.5. At time

interval t4 on a clock transition the output F0 toggles to a new state after a delay determined by

tPHL propagation delay of the first flip-flop. At interval t5 on the high to low transition of the F0

output, the output F1 toggles to a new state after a propagation delay tPHL of the second flip-

flop. Finally, at interval t6 the transition in F1 output toggles the output F2 of the third flip-flop.

The output F2 becomes stable after a propagation delay tPLH of the third flip-flop. The

propagation delay of each of the three flip-flop adds up to delay the output F2 by three

propagation delays with respect to the clock transition at interval t4. If the counter circuit is

extended by adding more flip-flops, then the output of the last flip-flop might exceed the clock

period of the clock which causes timing problems. The Asynchronous counters can not work at

high clock frequencies and cause problems with decoding circuits.

CLOCK

Input

Output

t4 t5 t6 t7

Figure 26.5

Timing Diagram of a 3-bit Asynchronous with propagation delay

The timing diagram of the 3-bit counter circuit using a clock of a higher frequency is

shown in Figure 26.6a. At interval t4, the negative clock transition toggles the F0 output to logic

low at interval tA after a propagation delay of tPHL. The negative transition of F0 at tA toggles the

F1 output to logic low at interval t5 after a propagation delay of tPHL. Finally, the F2 output is

toggled to logic high at interval tB after a delay of tPLH after the clock (F1) transition at interval t5.

The output states of the counter at intervals t1 to t7 are shown in table 26.2. The output at

interval t5 should be 100 instead of 010.

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Figure 26.6a Timing Diagram of a 3-bit Asynchronous with high frequency clock

Input

Output

Clock

Pulses

Table 26.2

Output of a 3-bit Asynchronous Up-Counter with high frequency clock

Mod-n Counters

The term Mod represents the Modulus of the counter which is the total number of

unique states through which the counter will sequence through. A 3-bit Asynchronous counter

can count up from 0 to 7 or count down from 7 to 0. The 3-bit counter has 8 different states

represented by the 8 outputs 0 to 7. The counter states or the range of numbers of a counter is

determined by the formula 2m. where m represents the number of flip-flops. Therefore, a Mod-

8 counter implemented using three flip-flops 23 has 8 output states.

Counter can also be designed to have less number of states than 2m. The resulting

sequence is called a truncated sequence. The counter therefore counts up to the truncated

sequence. Designing a truncated sequence counter is very simple. When the counter counts

up to the intended sequence it is reset to the initial count value 0. The counter is reset to the

initial count value by activating the Clear asynchronous inputs. The clears input is activated by

the counter through a combinational circuit that activates its output when the appropriate count

sequence is reached. The Mod-6 counter is shown in figure 26.7.

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J-K flip-flop 1

J-K flip-flop 2

J-K flip-flop 3

SET

CLK

CLR

Figure 26.7a Mod-6 Counter

Figure 26.7b Timing diagram of a Mod-6 Counter

The counter counts from state 000 to 101. At interval t6 the counter counts to 110. The

outputs F1 and F2 of the counter are connected to the inputs of a 2-input NAND gate, which

sets its output to logic zero when both its inputs become logic 1 at interval t6. The output of the

NAND gate is connected to the three active-low asynchronous Clear input of the three flip-

flops which are set to low by the NAND gate. Therefore the counter is immediately reset to

state 000 from where it proceeds to sequence through the count values. The Mod number of

the counter also determines the frequency at the output of the counter. The output at F2 has a

frequency which is 1/6th of the input clock frequency. Thus Mod-n counters can be design to

generate 1/nth frequency signal with respect to the input clock signal.

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Mod-10 Counter (Decade Counter)

A decade counter uses four-flip-flops to implement the circuit which counts up to 10

unique states (0000 to 1001). The counter is reset when it counts to the next state 1010. The

frequency of the output signal is 1/10th the input clock frequency. Figure 26.8.

J-K flip-flop 1

J-K flip-flop 2

J-K flip-flop 3

J-K flip-flop 4

SET

CLK

CLR

Figure 26.8a

Asynchronous Decade Counter

Figure 26.8b Timing diagram of a Decode Counter

The output F1 and F3 are connected through a NAND gate to the active-low clear inputs

of all the four flip-flops. The counter counts from 0000 to 1001 (ten output states), when it

counts to 1010, the output of the NAND gate is set to logic low which resets all the four flip-

flops to state 0000.

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Integrated Circuit Asynchronous Counters

Asynchronous Counters are available in Integrated Circuit form. The 74LS93A is a 4-bit

Asynchronous Counter. The counter has two separate clock inputs CLK A and CLK B

connected to the clock input of the first and second flip-flop respectively. The second, third and

fourth flip-flops are internally connected as a ripple 3-bit counter. The counter also has two

inputs pins connected to the inputs of a 2-input NAND (internal) gate, the output off which is

connected to the clear inputs of all the four flip-flops. The counter provides four outputs, one

form each flip-flop. Figure 26.9

CLK B

SET

flip-flop 1

flip-flop 2

flip-flop 3

flip-flop 4

CLK A

CLR

RO 1

RO 2

Figure 26.9

Internal circuit diagram of the 74LS93A Counter

The 74LS93A can be configured as MOD-16 counter by connecting CLK B input pin to

the Q0 output pin of the IC. RO 1 and RO 2 are connected to logic low. A Decade counter can

be implemented by connecting CLK B input to the Q0 and Q1 and Q3 outputs to RO 1 and RO

2 respectively. Figure 26.10 Two 74LS 93As ca be cascaded together to form a larger counter.

A MOD-50 counter is implemented using two 74LS93A ICs. Figure 26.11

Figure 26.10a 74LS93A connected as MOD-16 Counter

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CLKA

74LS93A

CLKB

Q0 Q1 Q2 Q3

Figure 26.10b 74LS93A connected as Decade Counter

Figure 26.11 74LS93A Connected as a frequency divider (divide by 50)

In the circuit diagram two 74LS93As are connected together to form a frequency

divider which divides the input frequency by 50. The first 74LS93A is connected to divide the

input frequency by 10. The Q3 output of the first 74LS93A is connected to the CLKB input of

the second 74LS93A. The second 74LS93A is connected to divide the input frequency at

CLKB by 5. The Q3 output of the second 74LS93A therefore provides an output which is 1/50th

of the clock applied at the CLKA input of the first 74LS93A. The second 74LS93A requires the

use of only three flip-flops, therefore the first flip-flop with clock input CLKA is left unconnected.

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