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Memory:Study Methods, Analyze Story Structure, Use Multiple Modalities

<< Memory:Representation of knowledge, PQ4R Method, Elaboration
Memory:Mental Imagery, More evidence, Kosslyn yet again, Image Comparison >>
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Cognitive Psychology ­ PSY 504
VU
Lecture 40
Memory
Study Methods
It is one area where you can apply all the knowledge that we require the cognitive psychology
based on the experimental research and the all different models have been come out and use it
to the advantage. So it is very important in almost every field and it is developing rapidly. So the
important methods are;
Method of Loci
1
PQ4R Method
2
Elaborate
3
Spacing Effect
4
Encoding variability
5
Analyze Story Structure
When you are studying a story you must analyze its structure. You must analyze its:
Setting: Time and Place
Theme: main goals of characters.
Plot: sequence of events related to achieving goals in the narrative.
Resolution: The outcome of events
Causal relations
Use Multiple Modalities
Another important thing is learn by using multiple modalities. You must store information visually
and verbally. Try and learn the information in different ways. No or minimal interference in Short
Term Memory between one source and another.
Mental Imagery
Many times when we are thinking about a scene an object no longer present, we experience an
image of that scene or object. People often refer to this as "Seeing in one's mind". The important
question in mental imagery is,
What is the nature of knowledge representations that underlie mental imagery?
These representations are called mental images. Much of this research has been concerned with
the types of mental processes that can be performed on spatial images.
Analog versus Digital
Analog and digital representation is also very important debate in mental imagery as well. Analog
representation is a representation of anything in same form. But in digital representation we see
and imagine the thing in parts.
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Cognitive Psychology ­ PSY 504
VU
Mental Rotation
Shepard and Metzler's (1971) experiment
Shepard and Metzler (1971) conducted an experiment. In that subject the subjects were
presented with pairs of two dimensional representations of three dimensional objects like those in
above figure. Their task was to determine if the objects were identical except for orientation. The
two figures in parts (a) and (b) are identical; they are just presented at different orientations.
Subjects report that to match the two shapes they rotated one of the objects in each pair mentally
until it was congruent one object so that it is identical with the other.
Results
The results are shown in this graph
The graphs in above figures show the time required for subjects to decide that the members of
pairs such as those in figures (a) and (b) were identical. The reaction times are plotted as a
function of the angular disparity between the two objects presented to the subject. This angular
disparity between the two objects represents the amount one object would have to be rotated in
order to match the other object in orientation.
These data might seem to indicate that subjects rotate the object in a three-dimensional space
within their heads. The greater the angle of disparity between the two objects, the longer subjects
takes to complete the rotation. Of course, subjects are not actually rotating an object in their
heads. However, whatever the actual mental process is, it appears to be analogous to physical
rotation.
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Cognitive Psychology ­ PSY 504
VU
Steve Kosslyn
He worked a lot in imagery. He gave many theories and models. He wrote many books on mental
imagery. One of his books is "Ghosts in the Mind's Machine' that is for layman.
Image Scanning
Researchers have looked at a number of other tasks which seem to show that when subjects are
performing certain mental computations they are operating on a visual image the way a person
might perform continuous operations on a physical object.
An experiment by Kosslyn, Ball & Reiser (1978) shows that it takes time to scan between two
locations on a mental image. These investigators presented subjects with a map of a factious
island containing a hut, rock, grass, tree, well, lake, sand. Subjects were trained till could draw it
with great accuracy. Then asked to picture the map mentally and focus on named object. 5 sec
later another object named, scan the map for this object and. Press a button when they find it.
The figure is given below.
Results
This graph is presenting the times needed to perform this mental operation as a function of the
distance between the two objects in the original map. There are 21 possible pairs of points, and
each point is represented. The abscissa gives the distance between each pair. The farther apart
the two objects were, the greater was the reaction time. Clearly, subjects did not have the actual
map in their heads and there fore were not moving from one location in their heads to a second
location. However, they were going through a process analogous to this physical operation.
119
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Cognitive Psychology ­ PSY 504
VU
Kosslyn (again)
Kosslyn (1995) wrote a book and he said we do have proves of images, is it possible the images
are actually stored in the form of propositional knowledge?
Can a propositional theory that can represent all types of knowledge?
The criticism of people on Kosslyn is that what about demand characteristics of the task. Demand
characteristics means Subjects try to guess what the experimenter tries to do in the experiment
and what he wants to draw. And the subjects perform in the way of experimenter.
Kosslyn answered the criticism by talking about neuroscience. He said the changes in brain
actually help us. They don't involve in demand characteristics.
The Evidence
Farah (1988) has made the suggestion that there might be two kinds of imagery, one that
involves visual properties and one that involves spatial properties. Farah argues that these same
cortical regions are used in imagery tasks that do not involve any external stimuli. They argue that
imagery tasks which involve spatial judgments will be performed in the parietal tasks that require
access to visual details will be performed in the temporal region and will show modality specific
effects. Visual imagery uses the same brain areas as vision. Selective damage to the brain
impairs visual imagery in the same manner that it impairs vision. Like Cerebral Blood Flow, Event
Related Potential (ERPs)
Occipital lobes are primary & secondary visual cortex.
Imagery and Athletes
Russian psychologist Gregory Raiport (1972-1976) trained athletes to perform mental rehearsals.
Good performance needs practice. But in every situation practice is not possible and physical
practice also have limit. Gregory worked on imagery with athletes to increase their performance.
The athletes are taught to imagine or visualize them selves performing the different stages of the
event. They found that neuromuscular practice is very beneficial and valuable for athletes.
Athletes should store moving images in their minds.
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Table of Contents:
  1. INTRODUCTION:Historical Background
  2. THE INFORMATION PROCESSING APPROACH
  3. COGNITIVE NEUROPSYCHOLOGY:Brains of Dead People, The Neuron
  4. COGNITIVE NEUROPSYCHOLOGY (CONTINUED):The Eye, The visual pathway
  5. COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY (CONTINUED):Hubel & Wiesel, Sensory Memory
  6. VISUAL SENSORY MEMORY EXPERIMENTS (CONTINUED):Psychological Time
  7. ATTENTION:Single-mindedness, In Shadowing Paradigm, Attention and meaning
  8. ATTENTION (continued):Implications, Treisman’s Model, Norman’s Model
  9. ATTENTION (continued):Capacity Models, Arousal, Multimode Theory
  10. ATTENTION:Subsidiary Task, Capacity Theory, Reaction Time & Accuracy, Implications
  11. RECAP OF LAST LESSONS:AUTOMATICITY, Automatic Processing
  12. AUTOMATICITY (continued):Experiment, Implications, Task interference
  13. AUTOMATICITY (continued):Predicting flight performance, Thought suppression
  14. PATTERN RECOGNITION:Template Matching Models, Human flexibility
  15. PATTERN RECOGNITION:Implications, Phonemes, Voicing, Place of articulation
  16. PATTERN RECOGNITION (continued):Adaptation paradigm
  17. PATTERN RECOGNITION (continued):Gestalt Theory of Perception
  18. PATTERN RECOGNITION (continued):Queen Elizabeth’s vase, Palmer (1977)
  19. OBJECT PERCEPTION (continued):Segmentation, Recognition of object
  20. ATTENTION & PATTERN RECOGNITION:Word Superiority Effect
  21. PATTERN RECOGNITION (CONTINUED):Neural Networks, Patterns of connections
  22. PATTERN RECOGNITION (CONTINUED):Effects of Sentence Context
  23. MEMORY:Short Term Working Memory, Atkinson & Shiffrin Model
  24. MEMORY:Rate of forgetting, Size of memory set
  25. Memory:Activation in a network, Magic number 7, Chunking
  26. Memory:Chunking, Individual differences in chunking
  27. MEMORY:THE NATURE OF FORGETTING, Release from PI, Central Executive
  28. Memory:Atkinson & Shiffrin Model, Long Term Memory, Different kinds of LTM
  29. Memory:Spread of Activation, Associative Priming, Implications, More Priming
  30. Memory:Interference, The Critical Assumption, Limited capacity
  31. Memory:Interference, Historical Memories, Recall versus Recognition
  32. Memory:Are forgotten memories lost forever?
  33. Memory:Recognition of lost memories, Representation of knowledge
  34. Memory:Benefits of Categorization, Levels of Categories
  35. Memory:Prototype, Rosch and Colleagues, Experiments of Stephen Read
  36. Memory:Schema Theory, A European Solution, Generalization hierarchies
  37. Memory:Superset Schemas, Part hierarchy, Slots Have More Schemas
  38. MEMORY:Representation of knowledge (continued), Memory for stories
  39. Memory:Representation of knowledge, PQ4R Method, Elaboration
  40. Memory:Study Methods, Analyze Story Structure, Use Multiple Modalities
  41. Memory:Mental Imagery, More evidence, Kosslyn yet again, Image Comparison
  42. Mental Imagery:Eidetic Imagery, Eidetic Psychotherapy, Hot and cold imagery
  43. Language and thought:Productivity & Regularity, Linguistic Intuition
  44. Cognitive development:Assimilation, Accommodation, Stage Theory
  45. Cognitive Development:Gender Identity, Learning Mathematics, Sensory Memory