RESEARCH METHODS:To Read Research, To Evaluate Research, To increase marketability

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Abnormal Psychology PSY404

LESSON 6

RESEARCH METHODS

What is research?

Research is a process of constant exploration and discovery. It is a systematic process of collecting and

analyzing information (data), in order to increase our understanding of the phenomenon with which we are

concerned or interested.

Research is characterized by following attributes

1. It is based on work of others

2. It is replicable

3. It is generalized to other settings

4. It is based on theory

5. It is doable

6. It generates new questions

7. It is incremental

8. The ultimate aim is the betterment of society

Research is fact finding exercise

There are many research methods like Observation, interview, surveys, experiments etc. Research is about

establishing a hypothesis and Abnormal Psychology focuses on hypotheses which explain the nature,

causes, and treatment of a disorder.

Types of Research Being Used In Abnormal Psychology

Following types of research are used in Abnormal psychology

Individual case study is used to study one or more individual in depth.

Research by correlation; tell whether a relationship exists between two variables. Epidemiological

research is a type of correlation research that reveals the incidence, prevalence and consequences of a

disorder.

Research by experiment can follow two designs group or single. In both designs, a variable or

variables are manipulated and their effects are observed in order to determine the nature of casual

relationship.

Genetic research includes Family Studies, Adoption Studies, Twin Studies, Genetic Linkage Analysis

and Association Studies.

Research examines psychopathology across time include Cross Sectional and Longitudinal designs.

The popular books, television programs about detectives, private investigators, mysteries, murders and

robberies always interest you, catch your attention because they force you to think and act logically. They

focus on facts. Science and scientists aim to discover facts or laws that operate in their disciplines.

Psychologists are scientists who are interested in facts about human behavior. Questions like, why we

should study research methods? Students often argue that why they should study research methods

Eight reasons, why you should study research methods:

To understand psychology better.

To keep up with recent discoveries by reading research.

To evaluate research claims.

To protect yourself from quack and frauds.

Abnormal Psychology PSY404

To be a better thinker.

To be scientifically literate, better educated citizen and consumer.

To improve your market ability in information age.

To do your own research.

1. To Understand Psychology better

The question, why you should study research method has a classic answer for the classic question i.e. that is

to understand psychology and specially abnormal psychology, the science of the study of mental disorders

in a better way. To study abnormal psychology without knowing the research methods would be like buying

a car without a knowing about its made and its engine or buying a house without seeing its location and

structure. Psychology's value in the world often comes not from its facts but from its methods of study i.e.

the most wonderful and useful thing that psychology can offer is not a prepackaged answer to the problem

(related to human behavior) based on facts but rather its method of getting answers to the problems. So

these methods of getting answers to the problems of behavior are the research methods of study.

2. To Read Research

When research gets answers to the problems that interest you and then you must read and interpret

scientific research reports.

What is the latest treatment for depression?

ii.

What are the causes of shyness?

iii.

How the work place stress can be reduced?

If you want to be up to date,

(a) Then read research

(b) Know research terminology

(d) Consult the original source.

(e) Draw your own conclusions.

Reading about research teaches you though in a vague sense how to do research. If your knowledge is up to

date, with each year, you would be providing most up-to date information to your students and to your

clients and you would be given treatments to your clients that work.

Would you be pleased to go to a teacher or to a clinician whose knowledge and skills were say some ten

years out of date? Think about it.

Would you really go? No.

3. To Evaluate Research

If you understand research, you will be able to critically evaluate it. These days, knowledge is available

through libraries, newspapers, through television and through internet. To judge as to how much

importance to be given to a particular research study is very difficult. Evaluating a research is a useful skill,

which can only develop when you read good quality research and quantity of research.

4. To Protect Yourself from Quacks and Frauds

These days you observe experts who are free to go on television talk shows and on internet and some times

they provide dangerous tips on how to loose weight, quit smoking, solve relationship problems related to

parent child, husband wife and brother and sister and employee employer etc. I do not mean that all experts

are giving bad advice but it is really very hard to differentiate between what is a good piece of suggestion

and what is not?

Today science, non-science and pseudo-science exist side by side in form of books, on television talk shows

and on internet. We live in the age of information or tell me is it that we live in the age of misinformation?

Without training in research, it is hard to distinguish, which information is useful and which is harmful.

Abnormal Psychology PSY404

5. To Be a Better Thinker

Scientific approach makes you a better thinker, improves your thinking skills and it makes you learn to solve

problems and make decisions, judge and interpret information, so it raises your practical intelligence. This

practical intelligence is necessary for understanding real life situations. Learning about research

methodology is actually learning about understanding real life situations and problems.

So actually, you learn to separate facts from fictions, science from non-science.

6. To be scientifically literate

People should profit from experience, science and technology. It is science and technology which shapes

and moulds our experiences and behavior. But in reality majority of the people, they do not believe in

science. They believe in palmistry, astrology, handwriting analysis, foot reflexology and numerology. Be a

firm believer of science and objective factual information.

7. To increase marketability

With research knowledge and information, you make yourself a potential candidate for job market. If you

have technical information, ability to evaluate and create information and analytical ability and an ability and

skill to turn data in useful market information then this skill will be helpful in business, law, medicine and

of course in psychology.

8. To do your own research

It is not surprising that Charles Darwin enjoyed exploring about the mysteries of the nature and John

Watson enjoyed experimenting with animal and human subjects while exploring about the mysteries of

human behavior, so you begin to understand what Carl Rogers meant when he said, "We need to sharpen

our vision of what is possible and (continue) pursuit of significant new knowledge."

When psychologists frequently come across questions like what criteria should be used to identify

psychological disorder? What factors caused mental disorders? How does an individual biological or

cognitive or social influence contribute to his problems? To answer questions like these and others,

psychologists frequently conduct research based on scientific methods.

What is science?

Science is the observation, identification, description, experimental investigation and theoretical explanation

of natural phenomenon. These methods of science i.e. observation, identification, description, experimental

investigation and theoretical explanation are based on Empiricism i.e. we can know about the world

through careful observation or more precisely through naturalistic observation and controlled observation.

Naturalistic observation is watching animals or humans in their normal environment. It gives a realistic

picture of behavior. Participant observation is naturalistic observation in which the observer becomes a

participant in the group being observed (to reduce observer effect).

Laboratory observation or controlled observation is watching animals or humans in a laboratory setting.

The advantage is in controlling the environment and making use of specialized equipment.

Observation assists an individual in identifying and asking research questions i.e. hypothesis.

Hypothesis

Hypothesis is a logical and testable question and opinion, opened for verification through experiment or

test.

Hypotheses formulation and its sources

From observation

From previous research finding

From personal experience

Other sources as well

Abnormal Psychology PSY404

The basic steps involved in the scientific inquiry

Specifying the problem.

Collecting information.

Identifying possible causes.

Examining options.

Narrowing the options by narrowing the experimentation.

Comparing data.

Extending, revising and testing.

The basic steps in scientific inquiry aim for precision and replication. Scientists and psychologists spell out

specify the procedures and methods so that others can replicate and reproduce their findings and ambiguity

should not be there.

Ambiguity can be reduced by operational definitions, which define a concept by other operations (steps

used in measuring it). Aggression is a concept so what does researcher means by it? Beating the enemy or

injuring the enemy.

There is no psychology without scientific inquiry because without science, psychology has few facts and

would be little batter than palmistry, astrology, graphology or any pseudo science. So science has helped:

Psychologists to get rid of superstitions

Develop understanding how to help people.

Scientific inquiry is actually research process, which is a logical, rational proven way of

obtaining information related to human behavior.

Basic components of a research

Hypothesis

An educated guess or statement to be supported by data.

Research Design

The plan for testing the hypothesis. The sample or subjects to be

used. The instrument and tool to be utilized.

Dependent Variable

An aspect of phenomenon that is measured, expected to change or

influenced by the independent variable.

Independent variable

The aspect that is manipulated or that thought to influence the

change in the dependent variable.

Internal Validity

The extend to which results of the study can be attributed to the

independent variable.

External Validity

The extend to which results of the study can be generalized or

applied outside this study.

Variable is a noun not an adjective it represents a class of outcomes and it can take more than one value.

Hair color is a variable red, black, white, grey etc

Types of Variables

Dependent variable (outcome, result, effect, and criterion) is a variable that indicates that whether the

manipulation of the independent variable had an effect.

Independent variable (treatment, factor, and predictor) is a variable that is manipulated to examine its

impact on a dependent variable.

Confounding variable (extraneous, threatening) is a variable that is related to independent or dependent

but not an intended part of study.

Example: vitamin A influences vision of subjects.

Vitamin A

independent variable

Abnormal Psychology PSY404

Vision

dependent variable

Food

confounding variable

Rich in Vitamin A

Hypothesis

Hypothesis is an educated guess, a research idea:

Hypothesis tells us how two or more variables are related to each other. Research process begins by

generating hypothesis.

Hypothesis Generation

a. By observation Keen observation

b. By studying previous researches.

c. By refuting an old existing theory related to a phenomenon or develops your own theory.

Characteristics of hypotheses

a. Make it testable.

b. Make it supportable.

c. Be sure to have a rational- how theory can help.

d. Demonstrate its relevance how it can solve a practical problem.

When you decide how you want to test your hypothesis you have a research design / plan

a. What will be your sample? How the sample will be selected? What will be the sample size?

b. Instruments / tools / questionnaires to be used

c. Statistical tests to apply

Research design includes aspects that you want to measure in the people (you are studying that is dependent

variable) and its influence on people's behavior (i.e. independent variable).

Example

Vitamin A influences (or effects) the eye sight of subject.

Vitamin A is independent variable.

Eye Sight is dependent variable.

Research Design

Two groups with equal number of subjects which are equally matched on all characteristics are randomly

selected.

One is experimental group

The other is control group

The only difference between experimented and the control group is that of treatment. The experimental

group is exposed or given vitamin A, while the control group does not get any Vitamin A. so if the eye sight

or vision of the experimental group improves or is better than control group then it is attributed to what? It

is because of Vitamin A.

Internal validity is the extent to which a researcher can be confident that the independent variable is

influencing or is causing the dependent variable.

Confounding variables or extraneous

It is any factor occurring in a study that makes the results uninterruptible that pollute or contaminate the

results. If the experimental group was eating diet rich in Vitamin A, or a lot of carrots, that improved their

vision ---. So all these are confounding variables for our research because then independent variable will not

be responsible for bringing changes in dependent variable i.e. The Vitamin A dosage administered to the

experimental group subjects in laboratory will not be the only aspect which will change or influence the

vision or eye sight of the subjects.

Abnormal Psychology PSY404

Dependent variable / Independent variable

Variables are factors that are connected together in form of hypothesis. The first variable is dependent

variable. Dependent variables are factors or aspects of the study that are influenced by independent variable

and they are expected to change. Independent variable is that aspect that is being manipulated or controlled

and thought to change the dependent variable. In the above mentioned study, Vitamin A is the independent

variable which is varied or given to experimental group but not to the control group. While dependent

variable is eye sight of the subject. So it is Vitamin A which is the independent variable responsible for

bringing change in the dependent variable i.e. eye sight of the subject.

Internal Validity / External Validity

Internal validity is the extend to which results can be attributed to independent variable. A study that is not

open to alternative explanations of the results is set to be internally valid and it is free of confounding

factors or variables. A confounding factor is that, which might have affected the dependent or independent

variable. When a confounding variable is present, the researcher or the investigator cannot know, whether it

is the independent variable or any other confounding variable responsible for the results.

External Validity of a Study

In internal validity of the study, we focus only on the results of the study that can be attributed to the

independent variable. While in external validity we want the results to apply to people / samples other than

the subjects of the study or we want to generalize the results to the other settings. That is, if one group of

subjects suffers from depression due to death of a loved one, we want the same results to be applied to

other samples of the population as well. So internal validity and external validity are working in opposition

to one another.

Statistical Significance / Clinical Significance

Statistics is part of psychology, in psychological results; statistical significance means that the probability of

obtaining the observed effects by chance is small. But it is important to understand the difference between

statistical and clinical significance.

Example: Consider a group of adults, who are mentally retarded and they are involved in self injurious

behavior of hitting or slapping themselves. Suppose we are to try a new drug treatment for the self injurious

behavior of adults with mental retardation. We examined one group that receive medication and a second

group that received a placebo (an empty sugar coated pill). To learn whether the new drug diminished or

decreased self injury, we use a rating scale to assess how frequently subjects hit themselves. At the beginning

of the study, all the subjects hit themselves an average of ten times per day. At the end of the study, we

found through the scores on the rating scale that the group on the medication received lower scores or hit

themselves less number of times then the untreated group. So we can conclude that the results are

statistically significant. Statistical significance depends on size of the effect, when you look at the people

who were rated as improved. You find that they still hit themselves about six times per day. Although the

frequency is lower. But some of the subjects hit themselves in such a manner that they produce serious cuts

and bruises. This may suggest that your statistically significant results may not be clinically significant i.e.

important to the people who hurt themselves. The effect size that is the actual statistical impact on treated

and un-treated persons in a research can be known by looking at the results of the group as a whole. The

behavioral scientists Wolf (1978) advocated the assessment technique labeled as social validity this

technique involves obtaining information from the person being treated as well as by significant others

about the importance of changes that have occurred. In the example, we might ask the employer, the family

members, friends and others. If they think that the medication has truly reduced the self injurious behavior

in the mentally retarded adults. If the effect of the treatment is large enough to impress those who are

directly involved, the treatment effect is clinically significant. So statistical technique measures the effect size

and the subjective clinical significance measures the social impact on individual or people around him.

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