ALL ABOUT WORDS:HOW WORDS ARE FORMED?:SUFFIXES

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Journalistic Writing MCM310

LECTURE 8

ALL ABOUT WORDS

WHAT ARE WORDS MADE OF?

The study of structure of words is called MORPHOLOGY. Look at this sentence:

"The plogs glorped bliply"

MORPHEMES: a morpheme is the smallest linguistic unit that has semantic meaning.

One morpheme: dog, elephant, child

Two morphemes: dog s, elephant s, child ish.

Three morphemes: child ish ness

Six morphemes: anti-dis-establish-ment-arian-ism

Free Morpheme: This can stand alone. E.g. dog, elephant, child, etc.

Bound Morpheme: This can't stand alone. E.g. s, ish, ness, ism, etc

HOW WORDS ARE FORMED?

Word forms

Portmanteau words

Prefixes

Suffixes

Compounding

WORDS FORMS:

WORD FORMS: noun, verb, adjective, and adverb. E.g. decide

We must come to a decision soon.

We beat them decisively.

He can never make up his mind. He is indecisive.

Some more examples:

Beauty = beautiful, beautician, beautify

Pay = payment, payable, payee

Receive = receptionist, receipt, receptive

Hero = heroism, heroically, heroin

Describe = descriptive, description, indescribable

Sense = sensation, insensitive, senseless,

Explain = explanatory, inexplicable

Prophecy = prophet, prophecy

Famous = fame, infamous, infamy

Enthusiasm = Enthusiastically, Enthusiast, enthuse

Journalistic Writing MCM310

PORTMANTEAU: Portmanteau is one derived by combining portions of two or more separate words.

They are blend of two words. So there are two meanings packed into one

Oxbridge = Oxford + Cambridge

Because = by + cause

Brunch = Breakfast + lunch

Camcorder = camera + recorder

Email = electronic + mail

Fortnight = fourteen + nights

Hassle = haggle + tussle

Intercom = internal + communication

PREFIXES: A prefix is placed at the beginning of a word to modify or change its meaning. This is a list

of the most common prefixes in English, together with their basic meaning and some examples. You can

find more detail or precision for each prefix in any good dictionary. The origins of words are extremely

complicated. You should use this list as a guide only, to help you understand possible meanings. But be

very careful, because often what appears to be a prefix is not a prefix at all. Note also that this list does not

include elements like "auto-" or "bio-", because these are "combining forms", not prefixes.

Prefix

Meaning

Examples

also an-

not, without

atheist, anaemic

to, towards

aside, aback

in the process of, in a

a-hunting, aglow

particular state

anew

completely

abashed

ab-

also abs-

away, from

abdicate, abstract

ad-

also a-, ac-, af-, ag-

movement to, change

advance, adulterate, adjunct, ascend, affiliate, affirm,

al-, an-, ap-, at-

into, addition or

aggravate, alleviate, annotate, apprehend, arrive,

as-, at-

increase

assemble, attend

ante-

before, preceding

antecedent, ante-room

anti-

also ant-

opposing, against, the

anti-aircraft, antibiotic, anticlimax, Antarctic

opposite

be-

all over, all around

bespatter, beset

completely

bewitch, bemuse

having, covered with

bejewelled

affect with (added to

befog

nouns)

cause to be (added to

becalm

adjectives)

Journalistic Writing MCM310

com-

also co-, col-, con-

with,

jointly,

combat, codriver, collude, confide, corrode

, cor-

completely

contra-

against, opposite

contraceptive

counter-

opposition, opposite

counter-attack, counteract

direction

de-

down, away

descend, despair, depend, deduct

completely

denude, denigrate

removal, reversal

de-ice, decamp

dia-

also di-

through, across

diagonal

dis-

also di-

negation,

removal,

disadvantage, dismount, disbud, disbar

expulsion

en-

also em-

put into or on

engulf, enmesh

bring

into

the

enlighten, embitter

condition of

intensification

entangle, enrage

ex-

also e-, ef-

out

exit, exclude, expand

upward

exalt, extol

completely

excruciate, exasperate

ex-wife

extra-

outside, beyond

extracurricular

hemi-

half

hemisphere

hyper-

beyond, more than,

hypersonic, hyperactive

more than normal

hypo-

under

hypodermic, hypothermia

in-

also il-, im-

not, without

infertile, inappropriate, impossible

also il-, im-, ir-

in, into,

towards,

influence, influx, imbibe

inside

infra-

below

infrared, infrastructure

inter-

between, among

interact, interchange

intra-

inside, within

intramural, intravenous

non-

absence, negation

non-smoker, non-alcoholic

Journalistic Writing MCM310

ob-

also oc-, of-, op-

blocking,

against,

obstruct, occult, offend, oppose

concealing

out-

surpassing, exceeding

outperform

external, away from

outbuilding, outboard

over-

excessively,

overconfident, overburdened, overjoyed

completely

upper,

outer,

over,

overcoat, overcast

above

peri-

round, about

perimeter

post-

after in time or order

postpone

pre-

before in time, place,

pre-adolescent, prelude, precondition

order or importance

pro-

favouring, in support

pro-African

acting for

proconsul

motion forwards or

propulsion

away

before in time, place

prologue

or order

re-

again

repaint, reappraise, reawake

semi-

half, partly

semicircle, semi-conscious

sub-

also suc-, suf-,

at a lower position

submarine, subsoil

sug-, sup-, sur-,

lower in rank

sub-lieutenant

sus-

nearly, approximately

sub-tropical

syn-

also sym-

union,

acting

synchronize, symmetry

together

trans-

across, beyond

transnational, transatlantic

into a different state

translate

ultra-

beyond

ultraviolet, ultrasonic

extreme

ultramicroscopic

un-

not

unacceptable, unreal, unhappy, unmanned

reversal

unplug, unmask

cancellation of action

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or state

under-

beneath, below

underarm, undercarriage

lower in rank

undersecretary

not enough

underdeveloped

SUFFIXES

Noun Suffixes: These are common endings for nouns. If you see these endings on a word, then you know it

must be a noun.

-dom

at the end of a word means:

- state or condition

- domain, position, rank

- a group with position, office, or rank

wise+dom means the state of understanding what is good, right and lasting

king+dom means the domain or area belonging to a king.

wisdom(n)

kingdom(n)

-ity

at the end of a word means condition or quality of __________.

capability(n)

capable+ity

means

the

condition

being

capable.

flexibility(n)

flexible+ity means the quality of being flexible.

-ment

at the end of a word means act of __________; state of __________;

result of __________.

contentment(n)

content+ment means the state of being satisfied (content).

-sion, -tion

at the end of a word means act of __________; state of __________.

celebrate+tion means the act of celebrating

celebration (n)

-ness

at the end of a word means state of __________.

toughness (n)

tough+ness means the state of being tough.

-ance, -ence

at the end of a word means act of __________; state of __________;

quality of __________.

assistance (n)

assist+ance means act of giving help.

-er, -or

at the end of a word means one who __________; that which

__________.

fighter

(n) fight+er

means

one

who

fights

actor (n)

act+or means one who acts.

-ist

at the end of a word also means one who __________; that which

__________.

violinist (n)

violin+ist means one who plays the violin.

Adjective Suffixes: These are common word endings for adjectives. If you see these ending at the end of a

word, you can be certain it is an adjective.

-ive

at the end of a word means doing or tending toward doing some action

extend+ive means doing something large in range or amount

extensive(adj)

select+ive means tending to select.

selective(adj)

-en

at the end of a word means made of __________.

wooden (adj)

wood+en

means

made

wood.

Note: When the word is an adjective, the -en means made of __________.

Journalistic Writing MCM310

We have seen -en at the end of a verb. There it means to make

__________.

-ic

at the end of a word means characteristic of__________; like

__________.

heroic

(adj) hero+ic

means

characteristic

hero.

poetic (adj)

poet+ic means characteristic of (or like) poets or poetry.

-al

sometimes makes an adjective; when it makes an adjective it means relating

to __________.

financial

(adj) finance+al means relating to finance. (Finance means money.)

manual (adj)

manu+al means relating to the hand. (Manus means hand in Latin.)

-able

at the end of a word means able __________; can __________; or giving

__________.

portable

(adj) port+able means can be carried; able to be carried.

pleasurable (adj)

pleasure+able means giving pleasure.

-y

at the end of a word means having __________.

hairy

(adj) hair+y

means

having

hair

lot

hair).

rainy (adj)

rain+y means having rain.

-ous

at the end of a word means full of __________; having __________.

mystery+ous means full of mystery.

mysterious (adj)

-ful

at the end of a word means full of __________; having __________.

hope+ful

means

full

hope.

hopeful

(adj) beauty+ful

means

full

beauty.

beautiful (adj)

Note: The suffix -ful is always spelled with one l; the word full has two.

-less

at the end of a word means without __________.

powerless

(adj) power+less

means

without

power.

homeless(adj)

home+less means without a home.

Verb Suffixes: These are common endings for verbs. If you see these endings on a word, then the word is

most likely a verb.

-en

at the end of a word means to make __________.

brighten

(v) bright+en

means

make

bright.

soften (v)

soft+en means to make soft.

-ize

at the end of a word means to make __________.

publicize (v)

public+ize means to make public or to make the public aware of.

-ate

at then end of a word means to have or be characterized by __________.

active+ate

means

make

active.

activate(v)

different+ate means to make or show a difference.

differentiate(v)

-ify or -fy

at the end of a word means to cause to become or to make.

simplify(v)

simple+ify means to make simple or simpler.

Adverb Suffixes: This is the most common ending for an adverb. If you see this ending on a word, you can be

fairly certain that it is an adverb. However, keep in mind that not all adverbs end this way.

-ly

at the end of a word almost always makes an adverb; occasionally it will

make an adjective.

quickly (adv)

quick+ly.

COMPOUNDING:

News + stand + paper + clip = newsstand, newspaper, news clip

Flower + petal + bud + pot = flower Patel, flower bud, flower pot

Lady + bug + finger + purse = ladybug, ladyfinger, lady purse

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Eye + color +brow + lid = eye color, eyebrow, eyelid

Hand + bag + shake + glove = Handbag, handshake + hand glove

FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE:

LITERAL AND FIGURATIVE

The robber struck me on the arm with a piece of wood. (literal)

Suddenly a clever idea struck me. (figurative)

1. Sharp knife and sharp tongue.

2. Tea is sweet and sweet baby.

3. Yacht sailed gracefully and he sailed through his exams.

4. Brush your hair and brush up your English.

5. Swollen jaw and swollen head.

6. Combed his hair and combed the jungle.

7. Fish in coastal water and only fish in the sea.

8. Diamonds are expensive and he is a rough diamond.

9. Boat sank and heart sank.

10. Drop an idea. (abandon)

11. A glaring error. (obvious)

12. I ploughed my way through the Mathematics problems.

COLLOCATIONS:

Collocation is the relationship between two words or groups of words that often go together and form a

common expression. If the expression is heard often, the words become 'glued' together in our minds. 'Crystal

clear', 'middle management' 'nuclear family' and 'cosmetic surgery' are examples of collocated pairs of

words. Some words are often found together because they make up a compound noun, for example 'riding

boots' or 'motor cyclist'.

Examples of phrases: a person can be 'locked in mortal combat', meaning involved in a serious fight, or

'bright eyed and bushy tailed', meaning fresh and ready to go; 'red in the face', meaning 'embarrassed', or

'blue in the face' meaning 'angry'. It is not a common expression for someone to be 'yellow in the face' or

'green in the face' however. Therefore 'red' and 'blue' collocate with 'in the face', but 'yellow in the face' or

'green in the face' are probably mistakes.

English has many of these collocated expressions and some linguists (e.g. Khellmer 1991) argue that our mental

lexicon is made up of many collocated words and phrases as well as individual items. Some words have

different collocations which reflect their different meanings, e.g. 'bank' collocates with 'river' and

'investment'.

COLLOCATIONS: TYPES:

1. Verb + noun

throw a party / accept responsibility

2. Adjective + noun

square meal / grim determination

3. Verb + adjective + noun

take vigorous exercise / make steady progress

4. Adverb + verb

strongly suggest / barely see

5. Adverb + adjective

utterly amazed / completely useless

6. Adverb + adjective + noun

totally unacceptable behavior

Journalistic Writing MCM310

7. Adjective + preposition

guilty of / blamed for / happy about

8. Noun + noun pay packet / window frame

DENOTATIONS AND CONNOTATIONS:

Denotation: a literal meaning of the word

Connotation: an association (emotional or otherwise) which the word evokes

For example: For some people, the word PIG might have connotations of dirty and smelly; others will think of

inquisitive or cheeky. Moreover, some might see TERRORISTS where others see FREEDOM FIGHTERS.

Another example:

Negative

There are over 2,000 vagrants in the city.

Neutral

There are over 2,000 people with no fixed address in the city.

Positive

There are over 2,000 homeless in the city.

More examples:

Favorable

Neutral

Unfavorable

relaxed

inactive

lazy

prudent

timid

cowardly

modest

shy

mousy

time-tested

old

out-of-date

dignified

reserved

stiff-necked

persevering

persistent

stubborn

up-to-date

new

newfangled

thrifty

conservative

miserly

self-confident

proud

conceited

10.

inquisitive

curious

nosy

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