HYPOTHESIS TESTING & CHARACTERISTICS:Correlational hypotheses

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Research Methods STA630

Lesson 7

HYPOTHESIS TESTING & CHARACTERISTICS

We have already seen that propositions are statements about variables considered to be true or false. If

the phenomenon under consideration happens to be observable reality then the said statement could be

empirically tested. A proposition that can be verified to determine its reality is a hypothesis. Therefore

one can say that a hypothesis is a verifiable counterpart of a proposition.

A hypothesis may be defined as a logically conjectured relationship between two or more variables,

expressed in the form of a testable statement. Relationship is proposed by using a strong logical

argumentation. This logical relationship may be part of theoretical framework of the study.

Let us look at some of the hypotheses:

1. Officers in my organization have higher than average level of commitment (variable).

2. Level of job commitment of the officers is associated with their level of efficiency.

3. Level of job commitment of the officers is positively associated with their level of efficiency.

4. The higher the level of job commitment of the officers the lower their level of absenteeism.

These are testable propositions. First hypothesis contains only one variable. The second one has two

variables which have been shown to be associated with each other but the nature of association has not

been specified (non-directional relationship). In the third hypothesis we have gone a step further where

in addition to the relationship between the two variables, the direction of relationship (positive) has also

been given. In the fourth hypothesis level of efficiency has been replaced with level of absenteeism, the

direction of relationship between the two variables has been specified (which is negative). In the

following discussion you will find these hypotheses being quoted as part of the examples.

Types of Hypotheses

i. Descriptive Hypothesis

Descriptive hypothesis contains only one variable thereby it is also called as univariate hypothesis.

Descriptive hypotheses typically state the existence, size, form, or distribution of some variable.

The first hypothesis contains only one variable. It only shows the distribution of the level of

commitment among the officers of the organization which is higher than average. Such a hypothesis is

an example of a Descriptive Hypothesis.

Researchers usually use research questions rather than descriptive hypothesis. For example a question

can be: What is the level of commitment of the officers in your organization?

ii. Relational Hypothesis

These are the propositions that describe a relationship between two variables. The relationship could be

non-directional or directional, positive or negative, causal or simply correlational.

While stating the relationship between the two variables, if the terms of positive, negative, more than,

or less than are used then such hypotheses are directional because the direction of the relationship

between the variables (positive/negative) has been indicated (see hypotheses 3 and 4). These

hypotheses are relational as well as directional. The directional hypothesis is the one in which the

direction of the relationship has been specified.

Non-directional hypothesis is the one in which the direction of the association has not been specified.

The relationship may be very strong but whether it is positive or negative has not been postulated (see

hypothesis 2).

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Correlational hypotheses

State merely that the variables occur together in some specified manner without implying that one

causes the other. Such weak claims are often made when we believe that there are more basic causal

forces that affect both variables. For example:

Level of job commitment of the officers is positively associated with their level of efficiency.

Here we do not make any claim that one variable causes the other to change. That will be possible only

if we have control on all other factors that could influence our dependent variable.

Explanatory (causal) hypotheses

Imply the existence of, or a change in, one variable causes or leads to a change in the other variable.

This brings in the notions of independent and the dependent variables. Cause means to "help make

happen." So the independent variable may not be the sole reason for the existence of, or change in the

dependent variable. The researcher may have to identify the other possible causes, and control their

effect in case the causal effect of independent variable has to be determined on the dependent variable.

This may be possible in an experimental design of research.

Different ways to state hypotheses

Hi motivation causes hi efficiency.

Hi motivation leads to hi efficiency.

Hi motivation is related to hi efficiency.

Hi motivation influences hi efficiency.

Hi motivation is associated with hi efficiency.

Hi motivation produces hi efficiency.

Hi motivation results in hi efficiency.

If hi motivation then hi efficiency.

The higher the motivation, the higher the efficiency

iii. Null Hypothesis

It is used for testing the hypothesis formulated by the researcher. Researchers treat evidence that

supports a hypothesis differently from the evidence that opposes it. They give negative evidence more

importance than to the positive one. It is because the negative evidence tarnishes the hypothesis. It

shows that the predictions made by the hypothesis are wrong. The null hypothesis simply states that

there is no relationship between the variables or the relationship between the variables is "zero." That is

how symbolically null hypothesis is denoted as "H0". For example:

H0 = There is no relationship between the level of job commitment and the level of efficiency. Or

H0 = The relationship between level of job commitment and the level of efficiency is zero. Or

The two variables are independent of each other.

It does not take into consideration the direction of association (i.e. H0 is non directional), which may be

a second step in testing the hypothesis. First we look whether or not there is an association then we go

for the direction of association and the strength of association. Experts recommend that we test our

hypothesis indirectly by testing the null hypothesis. In case we have any credibility in our hypothesis

then the research data should reject the null hypothesis. Rejection of the null hypothesis leads to the

acceptance of the alternative hypothesis.

iv. Alternative Hypothesis

The alternative (to the null) hypothesis simply states that there is a relationship between the variables

under study. In our example it could be: there is a relationship between the level of job commitment and

the level of efficiency. Not only there is an association between the two variables under study but also

Research Methods STA630

the relationship is perfect which is indicated by the number "1". Thereby the alternative hypothesis is

symbolically denoted as "H1". It can be written like this:

H1: There is a relationship between the level of job commitment of the officers and their level of

efficiency.

v. Research Hypothesis

Research hypothesis is the actual hypothesis formulated by the researcher which may also suggest the

nature of relationship i.e. the direction of relationship. In our example it could be:

Level of job commitment of the officers is positively associated with their level of efficiency.

The Role of the Hypothesis

In research, a hypothesis serves several important functions:

1. It guides the direction of the study: Quite frequently one comes across a situation when the

researcher tries to collect all possible information on which he could lay his hands on. Later on

he may find that only part of it he could utilize. Hence there was an unnecessary use of

resources on trivial concerns. In such a situation, hypothesis limits what shall be studied and

what shall not be.

2. It identifies facts that are relevant and those that are not: Who shall be studied (married

couples), in what context they shall be studied (their consumer decision making), and what shall

be studied (their individual perceptions of their roles).

3. It suggests which form of research design is likely to be the most appropriate: Depending

upon the type of hypothesis a decision is made about the relative appropriateness of different

research designs for the study under consideration. The design could be a survey design,

experimental design, content analysis, case study, participation observation study, and/or Focus

Group Discussions.

4. It provides a framework for organizing the conclusions of the findings:

The Characteristics of a Testable Hypothesis

Hypothesis must be conceptually clear. The concepts used in the hypothesis should be clearly

defined, operationally if possible. Such definitions should be commonly accepted and easily

communicable among the research scholars.

Hypothesis should have empirical referents. The variables contained in the hypothesis should

be empirical realities. In case these are not empirical realities then it will not be possible to

make the observations. Being handicapped by the data collection, it may not be possible to test

the hypothesis. Watch for words like ought, should, bad.

Hypothesis must be specific. The hypothesis should not only be specific to a place and

situation but also these should be narrowed down with respect to its operation. Let there be no

global use of concepts whereby the researcher is using such a broad concept which may all

inclusive and may not be able to tell anything. For example somebody may try to propose the

relationship between urbanization and family size. Yes urbanization influences in declining the

size of families. But urbanization is such comprehensive variable which hide the operation of so

many other factor which emerge as part of the urbanization process. These factors could be the

rise in education levels, women's levels of education, women empowerment, emergence of dual

earner families, decline in patriarchy, accessibility to health services, role of mass media, and

could be more. Therefore the global use of the word `urbanization' may not tell much. Hence it

is suggested to that the hypothesis should be specific.

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Hypothesis should be related to available techniques of research. Hypothesis may have

empirical reality; still we are looking for tools and techniques that could be used for the

collection of data. If the techniques are not there then the researcher is handicapped. Therefore,

either the techniques are already available or the researcher is in a position to develop suitable

techniques for the study.

Hypothesis should be related to a body of theory. Hypothesis has to be supported by

theoretical argumentation. For this purpose the research may develop his/her theoretical

framework which could help in the generation of relevant hypothesis. For the development of a

framework the researcher shall depend on the existing body of knowledge. In such an effort a

connection between the study in hand and the existing body of knowledge can be established.

That is how the study could benefit from the existing knowledge and later on through testing the

hypothesis could contribute to the reservoir of knowledge.

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