RESEARCH DESIGN:Purpose of the Study, Steps in Conducting a Survey

<< CRITERIA FOR GOOD MEASUREMENT:Convergent Validity

SURVEY RESEARCH:CHOOSING A COMMUNICATION MEDIA >>

Research Methods STA630

Lesson 19

RESEARCH DESIGN

A research design is a master plan specifying the methods and procedures for collecting and analyzing

the data. It is a strategy or blueprint that plans the action for carrying through the research project data.

A research design involves a series of rational decision-making choices depending upon the various

options available to the researchers. Broadly it is composed of different elements like: the purpose of

the study, the unit of analysis, time dimension, mode of observation, sampling design, observation tools,

data processing, and data analysis. Let us look at each one of these elements.

1. Purpose of the Study

From the perspective of purpose of the study, a research can be exploratory, descriptive, and

explanatory (the distinctions we have already discussed). As we have already covered a number of

steps in the research process, at this stage it is assumed that we are pretty sure about what we are

looking for whereby we have gone much beyond the stage of an exploratory study (all studies have

elements of exploration in them).

Beyond the exploratory stage now we are entering into the formal stage of delineating the plan for data

collection, data processing, and data analysis. Here our focus is on whether our study is going to be a

descriptive or explanatory. The essential difference between descriptive and explanatory studies lies in

their objectives. If the research is concerned with finding out who, what, where, when, or how much,

then the study is descriptive. If it is concerned with learning why that is how one variable produces

changes in another it is causal. Research on crime as such is descriptive when it measures the types of

crimes committed, how often, when, where, and by whom. In a explanatory study, we try to explain

relationships among variables for instance, why the crime rate is higher in locality A than in locality

B. Every explanatory study in the beginning is likely to be descriptive as well.

Methodological rigor increases as one moves from exploratory study to explanatory study, which may

encompass hypothesis testing involving multiple methods of data collection, sophistications in sampling

designs, formulation of instruments of data collection, data processing, and data analysis. Since the

purpose of the study is likely to determine how rigorous the research design is likely to be, therefore, the

researcher would decide very early on about the purpose of his/her study.

Within the explanatory study, researcher may further decide about the type of investigation i.e. causal

versus correlational. The researcher must decide whether a causal or correlational study is needed to

find an answer to the issue at hand. The former is done when it is necessary to establish a definitive

cause-and-effect relationship. If the researcher just wants a mere identification of important factors

"associated with" the problem, then a correlational study is called for. Whether the study is basically a

correlational or causal will help in deciding about the mode of observation survey study or an

experimental study.

2. Unit of Analysis

The unit of analysis refers to the level of aggregation of the data collected during the subsequent data

analysis stage. If, for instance, the problem statement focuses on how to raise the motivational levels of

employees in general, then we are interested in individual employees in the organization and would

have to find out what we can do to raise their motivation. Here the unit of analysis is the individual.

We will be looking at the data gathered from each individual and treating each employee's response as

an individual data source.

If the researcher is interested in studying two-person interactions, then several two-person groups (also

known as dyads) will become the unit of analysis. Analysis of husband-wife interactions in families and

Research Methods STA630

supervisor-subordinate relationship at the work place, teacher-student relationship in the educational

institution are good examples of dyads as unit of analysis.

If the problem statement is related to group effectiveness, the unit of analysis would be at group level.

In other words, even though we may gather relevant data from all individuals comprising, say six

groups, we would aggregate the individual data into group data so as to see the differences among six

groups. If we compare different departments in the organization, then data analysis will be done at the

department level that is, the individuals in the department will be treated as one unit and

comparisons made treating the department as a unit of analysis.

The research question determines the unit of analysis. Keeping the research question in view, it is

necessary to decide on the unit of analysis since the data collection methods, sample size, and even the

variables included in the framework may sometimes be determined or guided by the level at which the

data are aggregated for analysis.

Units of analysis in a study are typically also the units of observation. Thus, to study voting intentions,

we would interview (observe) individual voters. Sometimes, however, we "observe" our units of

analysis indirectly. For example, we might ask husbands and wives their individual voting intentions,

for purpose of distinguishing couples who agree and disagree politically. We might want to find out

whether political disagreements tend to cause family disharmony, perhaps. In this case, our unit of

analysis would be families, though the unit of observation would be the individual wives and husbands.

3. Time Dimension

Do we make the observations more or less at one time or over a long period, former called as cross-

sectional studies and the latter as longitudinal studies. While planning the strategy for data collection the

time dimension may be an important component.

Cross-Sectional Studies are carried out once and represent a snapshot of one point in time. Data are

collected just once, perhaps over a period of days or weeks or months, in order to answer the research

question.

Longitudinal Studies are repeated over an extended period. The advantage of longitudinal studies is

that it can track changes over time. For example, the researcher might want to study employees'

behavior before and after a change in the top management, so as to know what effects the change

accomplished. Here, because data are gathered at two different points in time, the study is not cross-

sectional or of the one-shot kind, but is carried longitudinally across a period of time. Such studies, as

when data on the dependent variable are gathered at two or more points in time to answer the research

question, are called longitudinal. Longitudinal studies can be panel studies and cohort studies which

were discussed earlier.

4. Researcher Control of Variables

In terms of researcher's ability to manipulate variables, we can differentiate between experimental and

ex post facto design. In an experiment, the researcher attempts to control and/or manipulate the

variables in the study. It is enough that we can cause variables to be changed or held constant in

keeping with our research objectives. Experimental design is appropriate when one wishes to discover

whether certain variables produce effects in other variables. Experimentation provides the most

powerful support possible for hypothesis of causation.

Experimental studies can be contrived and non-contrived. Research can be done in the natural

environment where work proceeds normally (i.e. in non contrived setting) or in artificial, contrived

setting. Correlational studies are invariably conducted in non contrived settings, whereas most rigorous

causal studies are done in contrived lab settings. Correlational studies doe in organizations are called

Research Methods STA630

field studies. Studies conducted to establish cause-and-effect relationship using the same natural

environment are called field experiments. Here the researcher does not interfere with the natural

occurrence of events in as much as independent variable is manipulated.

Experiments done to establish cause and effect relationship beyond the possibility of the least doubt

require the creation of an artificial, contrived environment in which all the extraneous factor are strictly

controlled. Similar subjects are chosen carefully to respond to certain manipulated stimuli. These

studies are referred to as lab experiments.

With an ex post facto design, investigators have no control over the variables in the sense of being able

to manipulate them. They can only report what has happened or what is happening. It is important that

the researchers using this design not influence the variables; to do so introduces bias. The researcher is

limited to holding factors constant by judicious selection of subjects according to strict sampling

procedures and by statistical manipulation of findings. Survey research is an example of such study.

5. Choice of Research Design: Mode of Observation

There could be number of ways to collect the data depending upon whether the study is quantitative or

qualitative, descriptive or explanatory, cross-sectional or longitudinal, and contrived or non-contrived,

the researcher decides about the mode of observation. The modes could be like: survey, experiment,

communication analysis (content analysis) field observation, case study, focus group discussion.

6. Sampling Design

The basic idea of sampling is that by selecting some of the elements in population, we may draw

conclusions about the entire population. A population element is the subject on which the measurement

is being taken. It is the unit of analysis. Sampling has its own advantages and disadvantages.

Depending upon the nature of the study the researchers decides about following appropriate type of

sampling design.

7. Observation Tools

Observation tool mostly used by social researchers are: questionnaire, interview schedule,

Interview guide, and check list. In the research design, the researcher will specify the tools of data

collection along the logic justifying the appropriateness of the selected tool.

8. Field Data Collection

Depending upon the mode of observation, the researcher will outline the procedure for field operations.

The researcher will try to look after the questions like: How the data will be collected? Who will be

responsible for the collections of data? What training will be imparted to the field functionaries? How

will the quality control of data be maintained?

9. Data Processing and Data Analysis

In the research design the researcher is required to tell how the data shall be processed (manually,

mechanically), and analysis plans explicated. In case the qualitative data are to be quantifies the

procedures should be spelled out. The procedures for the construction of score

Indexes, if any, should be explained.

The research design should also say something about the analysis plan, the use of statistics, and the

inferences to be drawn.

Research Methods STA630

Survey Research: An Overview

Surveys require asking people, who are called respondents, for information, using either verbal or

written questions. Questionnaires or interviews are utilized to collect data on the telephone, face-to-

face, and through other communication media. The more formal term sample survey emphasizes that

the purpose of contacting respondents is to obtain a representative sample of the target population.

Thus, a survey is defined as a method of gathering primary data based on communication with a

representative sample of individuals.

Steps in Conducting a Survey

The survey researcher follows a deductive approach. He or she begins with a theoretical or applied

research problem and ends with empirical measurement and data analysis. Once a researcher decides

that survey is an appropriate method, basic steps in a research project can broadly be divided into six

sub-steps.

Develop the hypothesis; decide on type of survey (mail, interview, telephone); write survey

questions (decide on response categories, design lay out). The researcher develops an

instrument a survey questionnaire or interview schedule that he or she uses to measure

variables. Respondents read the questions themselves and mark answers on a questionnaire.

An interview schedule is a set of questions read to the respondent by an interviewer, who also

records the responses. To simplify the discussion, we will use only thee term questionnaire.

Plan how to record data; pilot test survey instrument. When preparing the questionnaire,

the researcher thinks ahead to how he or she will record and organize data for analysis. The

questionnaire is pilot tested on a small set of respondents similar to those in the final survey.

Decide on target population; get sampling frame; decide on sample size; select the sample.

Locate respondents; conduct interviews; carefully record data. The researcher locates

sampled respondents in person, by telephone, or by mail. Respondents are given information

and instructions on completing the questionnaire or interview.

Enter data into computers; recheck all data; perform statistical analysis on data.

Describe methods and findings in research report; present findings to others for critique

and evaluation.

Table of Contents: