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Leadership
& Team Management MGMT
623
VU
Lesson
21
MOTIVATION
In
lecture number 20, we started
understanding the concept of empowerment.
Continuing the same
concept,
we will try to understand delegation
before moving to new topic
Motivation.
Delegation:
Delegation
is the handing over a task to another
person, usually a subordinate. It is
the
assignment
of authority and responsibility to another
person to carry out specific
activities. It allows a
subordinate
to make decisions, i.e. it is a shift of
decision-making authority from one
organizational
level
to a lower one.
Reasons
for Lack of
Delegation
·
Aspects
of the leader's personality
·
Fear
of subordinate making a mistake
·
High
need for personal achievement
·
Characteristics
of the subordinate
·
Nature
of the work
Guidelines
for Delegating
What
to Delegate
o
Tasks
that can be done better by a
subordinate
o
Tasks
that are urgent but
not high priority
o
Tasks
relevant to a subordinate's
career
o
Tasks
of appropriate difficulty
o
Both
pleasant and unpleasant tasks
o
Tasks
not central to the manager's
role
How
to Delegate
o
Specify
responsibilities clearly
o
Provide
adequate authority and specify
limits of discretion
o
Specify
reporting requirements
o
Ensure
subordinate acceptance of
responsibilities
How
to Manage Delegation
o
Inform
others who need to
know
o
Monitor
progress in appropriate ways
o
Arrange
for the subordinate to receive necessary
information
o
Provide
support and assistance, but avoid
reverse delegation
o
Make
mistakes a learning experience
Let's
shift to another very important
topic Motivation.
Motivation:
There
are over 140 definitions of
the term motivation that have been
used in various
capacities.
Motivation is important because it
explains why employees behave as they
do. Work
Motivation
can
be defined as the psychological forces
within a person that
determine the direction of a
person's
behavior in an organization, a person's
level of effort, and a person's level of
persistence in the
face
of obstacles.
Definition:
Motivation
is the result of the interaction of the
individual and the situation.
Motivation
is the processes that account
for an individual's intensity,
direction,
and
persistence
of
effort toward attaining a
goal.
The
process that initiates, directs,
and sustains behavior to
satisfy physiological or
psychological
needs or wants; the energizing and
directing of behavior, the force
behind our
yearning
for food, our longing
for sexual intimacy, and our
desire to achieve.
Sources
of Motivation: Intrinsic
and Extrinsic Motivation;
Intrinsically
Motivation: is behavior
that is performed for its
own sake; the source of
motivation is
actually
performing the behavior.
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a.
Employees who are intrinsically
motivated often remark that
their work gives them a
sense
of
accomplishment and achievement or that they
feel they are doing
something worthwhile.
b.
Motives are intrinsic when
an independent third party cannot
easily verify them.
Extrinsic
Motivation: is behavior
that is performed to acquire material or
social rewards or to
avoid
punishment.
a.
The behavior is not
performed for its own
sake but rather for its
consequences.
b.
This form of motivation
may be linked to operant
conditioning.
c.
Motives are extrinsic when
they can easily be verified
by an independent third
party.
Motivation
at Work: A historical
perspective
Traditional
Approach:
Frederick
Taylor (Scientific Management): In
1911, Frederick W. Taylor
published one of the earliest
approaches
to job design, The Principles of
Scientific Management.
Taylor
was concerned that employees were
slacking off and not
performing as highly as
they
should
on their jobs.
Scientific
management, a set of principles and
practices stressing job.
Simplification and
specialization,
was developed by Taylor to
increase the performance of individual
employees.
His
premise was that there was
one best way to perform any
job, and management's
responsibility
was
to determine what that way
is.
Assumptions:
Managers
know more than
workers.
Economic
gain (money) is the primary
motivation for performance.
Work
is inherently unpleasant.
Human
Relations Approach
Emphasized
the role of social processes in the
workplace.
Assumptions:
Employees
want to feel useful and and
important.
Employees
have strong social needs, more important
than money.
Maintaining
the appearance of employee participation
is important.
Human
Resource Approach
Assumptions:
Employee
contributions are important and
valuable to the employee and the
organization.
Employees
want to and are able to make
genuine contributions.
Management's
job is to encourage participation and
create a work environment
that motivates
employees.
Groups
of Motivational Theories:
Internal
o
Suggest
that variables within the
individual give rise to motivation and
behavior
o
Example:
Maslow's hierarchy of needs
theory
Process
Emphasize
the nature of the interaction between the
individual and the environment
o
Example:
Expectancy theory
o
External
Focus
on environmental elements to explain
behavior
o
Example:
Two-factor theory
o
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Why
People Do What They
Do?
Points
about human motivation help
explain the complicated relationship
between personal
goals and
work
behavior.
Satisfied
need is not a motivator. People are
motivated by:
o
What
they don't have or have done
without
o
A
need that is not fully
satisfied
o
Employee
motivation and company
success are related. Seven
practices successful
companies
share:
o
Employment
security
o
Empowered
teams and decentralization
o
High
compensation
o
Extensive
training
o
Reduced
status distinctions and barriers
o
Sharing
of information
Psychological
needs and social values are
not the same
o
Psychological
forces are the same,
but the values are
not
o
Psychological
needs explain human
motivation
o
Social
values are the ethics
concern
The
same act can satisfy any
motivation levels
o
One
person may work to survive;
another may do the same job
for recognition or
personal
satisfaction
All
people have the same
needs, but to different degrees,
and accompanied by different
wants
What
it takes and how much vary
by person.
A
person can be deficiency-motivated, bringing
harm to self or
others
It is
possible to have a fixation so strong it can
lead to destructive
behavior
A
healthy person is ready to
satisfy other needs
Unsatisfied
needs can harm your
health.
A
motivation condition can
develop to satisfy the unsatisfied
need.
Leadership
is important in meeting employee
needs and preventing
motivation problems
What a
leader does will vary with
the circumstances.
The
ideal is to integrate the needs of individuals
with the goals of the
organization
The
needs of the individual can be
satisfied, while advancing the goals of
the
organization
Let's
discuss basic theories of
motivation.
Theory
X:
Douglas
McGregor concluded that a manager's
view of the nature of human beings is based on
a
certain
grouping of assumptions and he or
she tends to mold his or her
behavior toward employees
according
to these assumptions. Theory-X
Management view that assumes
workers generally
dislike
work
and must be forced to do their
jobs.
Theories
X assumptions are basically
negative.
1.
Employees inherently dislike work and,
whenever possible, will attempt to avoid
it.
2.
Since employees dislike work, they
must be coerced, controlled, or
threatened with
punishment.
3.
Employees will avoid responsibilities and
seek formal direction
whenever possible.
4.
Most workers place security above
all other factors and will
display little
ambition.
Theory
Y
Management
view that assumes workers
like to work and under
proper conditions, employees will
seek
responsibility
to satisfy social, esteem, and
self-actualization needs
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Theory
Y assumptions are basically
positive.
1.
Employees can view work as
being as natural as rest or
play.
2.
People will exercise self-direction and
self-control if they are
committed to the objectives.
3.
The average person can
learn to accept, even seek,
responsibility.
4.
The ability to make innovative decisions
is widely dispersed throughout the
population.
What
are the implications for
managers? This is best explained by
using Maslow's
framework:
1.
Theory X assumes that
lower-order needs dominate
individuals.
2.
Theory Y assumes that
higher-order needs dominate
individuals.
3.
McGregor himself held to the
belief that Theory Y
assumptions were more valid
than
Theory
X.
4.
There is no evidence to confirm that
either set of assumptions is
valid.
5.
Either Theory X or Theory Y
assumptions may be appropriate in a
particular situation.
Maslow's
Hierarchy of Needs: Abraham
Maslow's hierarchy of needs is the
most well-known
theory
of
motivation. He hypothesized that within
every human being there exists a
hierarchy of five
needs.
1.
Physiological:
Includes
hunger, thirst, shelter,
sex, and other bodily
needs.
2.
Safety:
Includes
security and protection from
physical and emotional harm
3.
Social:
Includes
affection, belongingness, acceptance, and
friendship
4.
Esteem:
Includes
internal esteem factors such as
self-respect, autonomy, and achievement;
and
external
esteem factors such as status,
recognition, and attention.
5.
Self-actualization:
The
drive to become what one is
capable of becoming; includes
growth,
achieving
one's potential, and
self-fulfillment
As
a need becomes substantially
satisfied, the next need
becomes dominant. No need is
ever fully
gratified;
a substantially satisfied need no
longer motivates.
Maslow
separated the five needs
into higher and lower
orders.
o
Physiological
and safety needs are described as
lower-order.
o
Social,
esteem, and self-actualization
are as higher-order
needs.
o
Higher-order
needs are satisfied
internally.
o
Lower-order
needs are predominantly
satisfied externally.
Maslow's
need theory has received
wide recognition, particularly among
practicing managers.
Research
does not generally validate
the theory.
Maslow
provided no empirical substantiation, and
several studies that sought to validate
the theory
found
no support for it.
Alderfer's
ERG Theory: Clayton
Alderfer's existence-relatedness-growth (ERG)
theory builds on
some
of the Maslow's thinking but
reduces the number of universal needs
from five to three and is
more
flexible on movement between levels.
Alderfer lifts the restriction
used by Maslow that
lower-
order
needs must be addressed
first.
a.
Needs at more than one level
can be motivators at any
time.
b.
Alderfer proposes that when
an individual is motivated to satisfy a
higher- level need but
has
difficulty
doing so, the person's motivation to
satisfy lower-level needs
will increase.
o
Existence
o
Concerned
with providing basic
material existence requirements
o
Relatedness
o
Desire
for maintaining important
interpersonal relationships
o
Growth
o
Intrinsic
desire for personal
development
The
Research Evidence:
o
Though
logical, the theories proposed by Maslow and
Alderfer do not receive much
support from
research.
o
Difficulties
include:
o
It
may be unreasonable to expect a relatively
small set of needs ordered in a
particular
fashion
to apply to all human beings.
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o
It
may be unrealistic to expect that
all people become motivated
by different types of needs
in
a set order.
Herzberg's
Motivation/Hygiene Theory: The
Two-Factor Theory is sometimes
also called
motivation-hygiene
theory. Proposed by psychologist
Frederick Herzberg when he
investigated the
question,
"What do people want from
their jobs?" He asked people
to describe, in detail, situations
in
which
they felt exceptionally good
or bad about their jobs.
These responses were then
tabulated and
categorized.
Motivators--account
for job satisfaction and
motivation
·
Achievement
·
Recognition
·
Work itself
·
Responsibility
·
Advancement
Hygiene
factors--cause
dissatisfaction with
work
·
Interpersonal
relationships
·
Company
policy/administration
·
Supervision
·
Salary
·
Working conditions
From
the categorized responses, Herzberg
concluded:
·
Intrinsic
factors, such as advancement, recognition,
responsibility, and achievement seem to
be
related
to job satisfaction.
·
Dissatisfied
respondents tended to cite extrinsic
factors, such as supervision, pay,
company policies,
and
working conditions.
·
The
opposite of satisfaction is not
dissatisfaction.
·
Removing
dissatisfying characteristics from a
job does not necessarily
make the job
satisfying.
·
Job
satisfaction factors are separate and
distinct from job
dissatisfaction factors. Managers
who
eliminate
job dissatisfaction factors may
not necessarily bring about
motivation.
·
When
hygiene factors are adequate,
people will not be
dissatisfied; neither will
they be satisfied. To
motivate
people, emphasize factors intrinsically
rewarding that are
associated with the work
itself
or
to outcomes directly derived
from it.
Criticisms
of the theory:
·
The
procedure that Herzberg used is
limited by its
methodology.
·
The
reliability of Herzberg's methodology is
questioned.
·
No
overall measure of satisfaction
was utilized.
·
Herzberg
assumed a relationship between satisfaction and
productivity, but the
research
methodology
he used looked only at
satisfaction, not at
productivity.
·
Regardless
of criticisms, Herzberg's theory
has been widely read, and
few managers are
unfamiliar
with
his recommendations.
·
The
popularity of vertically expanding
jobs to allow workers greater
responsibility can probably
be
attributed
to Herzberg's findings.
This
is also known as Two-Factor
Theory as explained
earlier.
Two-Factor
Theory
Motivation
factors
Hygiene
factors
·
·
Supervisors
Achievement
·
·
Working
conditions
Recognition
·
·
Interpersonal
relations
The
work itself
·
·
Pay
and security
Responsibility
·
·
Company
policies and administration
Advancement
and growth
McClelland's
Theory of Needs: The
theory focuses on three needs:
achievement, power, and
affiliation.
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·
Need
for achievement: The
drive to excel, to achieve in relation to
a set of standards, to strive
to
succeed
o
Some
people have a compelling drive to
succeed. They are striving
for personal
achievement
rather than the rewards of success per
se. This drive is the achievement
need
(nAch).
McClelland
found that high achievers
differentiate themselves from
others by their
desire
o
to
do things better.
They
seek personal responsibility for
finding solutions to problems.
o
They
want to receive rapid feedback on
their performance so they can
tell easily whether
o
they
are improving or not.
They
can set moderately
challenging goals. High achievers are
not gamblers; they
dislike
o
succeeding
by chance.
High
achievers perform best when
they perceive their
probability of success as
50-50.
o
They
like to set goals that
require stretching themselves a
little.
o
·
Need
for power: The
need to make others behave in a way
that they would not have
behaved
otherwise,
o
The
need for power (nPow)
is the desire to have impact, to be
influential, and to control
others.
o
Individuals
high in nPow enjoy being
"in charge."
o
Strive
for influence over
others.
o
Prefer
to be placed into competitive and status-oriented
situations.
o
Tend
to be more concerned with prestige and
gaining influence over
others than with
effective
performance.
·
Need
for affiliation: The
desire for friendly and
close interpersonal
relationships
o
The
third need isolated by
McClelland is affiliation (nAfl).
o
This
need has received the least
attention from
researchers.
o
Individuals
with a high affiliation
motive strive for
friendship.
o
Prefer
cooperative situations rather than
competitive ones.
o
Desire
relationships involving a high
degree of mutual
understanding.
Relying
on an extensive amount of research, some
reasonably well-supported predictions can
be made
based
on the relationship between achievement need and
job performance.
Equity
Theory: The
equity (equity means fairness)
theory of work motivation
was developed in the
1960s
by J. Stacy Adams.
·
Equity
theory is based on the premise
that an employee perceives the
relationship between
outcomes
(what an employee gets from
a job and organization) and inputs
(what the employee
contributes
to a job and organization).
·
According
to equity theory, it is not the
objective level of outcomes and
inputs that is
important.
Instead,
what is important is the way an
employee perceives his or her
outcome/input ratio
compared
to the outcome/input ratio of another
person (called a referent by
Adams).
·
It is
the employee's perceptions of the referent's
outcomes and inputs that
are compared not
any
objective
measure of actual outcomes or
inputs.
·
Are
the outcomes perceived as being at an
appropriate level in comparison to the
inputs? Managers
need
to ensure that different
employee's outcome-input ratios
are approximately equal so
that
employees
who contribute more inputs
receive more outcomes and vice
versa.
Equity:
·
Equity
exists when an individual's outcome/input
ratio equals the outcome/input
ratio of the
referent.
·
When
employees perceive that the employee's
and the referent's outcome/input ratios
are
proportionally
equal, they are motivated
either to maintain the status
quo or to increase their
inputs
to
receive more outcomes.
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.
Inequity:
·
Inequity,
or lack of fairness, exists when
outcome/input ratios are not
proportionally equal.
·
Inequity
creates tension and unpleasant feelings
inside an employee and a
desire to restore
equity.
There
are two types of
inequity:
·
Overpayment
inequity exists when an individual
perceives that his or her outcome/input
ratio is
greater
than that of a
referent.
·
Underpayment
inequity exists when a person perceives
that his or her outcome/input
ratio is
less
than that of a
referent.
Ways
to Restore Equity:
·
Employees
can change their inputs or
outcomes.
·
Employees
try to change their
referents' inputs or
outcomes.
·
Employees
change their perceptions of inputs and
outcomes (either their own
or the referents').
·
Employees
can change their
referent.
·
Employees
leave the job or organization or
force the referent to
leave.
Expectancy
Theory:
Expectancy
theory is one of the most
widely accepted explanations of
motivation. Victor
Vroom's
expectancy theory has its
critics but most of the
research is supportive.
Expectancy
theory argues that the
strength of a tendency to act in a certain
way depends on the
strength
of an expectation that the act
will be followed by a given outcome and
on the
attractiveness
of that outcome to the individual.
It
says that an employee will
be motivated to exert a high
level of effort when he/she
believes
that:
Effort
will lead to a good performance
appraisal.
o
That
a good appraisal will lead to
organizational rewards.
o
That
the rewards will satisfy
his/her personal goals.
o
Three
key relationships
1.
Effort-performance relationship: the
probability perceived by the individual
that exerting a
given
amount of effort will lead to
performance
2.
Performance-reward relationship: the degree to
which the individual believes
that
performing
at a particular level will
lead to the attainment of a desired
outcome
3.
Rewards-personal goals relationship: the degree to
which organizational rewards
satisfy an
individual's
personal goals or needs and the attractiveness of
those potential rewards for
the
individual
Expectancy
theory helps explain why a
lot of workers merely do the
minimum necessary to
get
by.
For example:
If
I give a maximum effort,
will it be recognized in my performance
appraisal?
No,
if the organization's performance appraisal assesses
nonperformance factors.
The
employee,
rightly or wrongly, perceives that
his/her boss does not
like him/her.
If
I get a good performance appraisal, will it
lead to organizational
rewards?
Typically
many employees see the performance-reward
relationship in their job as
weak.
If
I am rewarded, are the rewards ones
that I find personally
attractive?
·
It is
important that the rewards be
tailored to individual employee
needs
The
key to expectancy theory is the
understanding of an individual's goals and the
linkage
o
between
effort and performance, between performance and
rewards, and finally, between the
rewards
and individual goal
satisfaction.
As
a contingency model, expectancy theory
recognizes that there is no universal
principle for
o
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explaining
everyone's motivations.
o
Attempts
to validate the theory have been
complicated by methodological criterion
and
measurement
problems.
o
Published
studies that purport to support or
negate the theory must be
viewed with caution.
o
Importantly,
most studies have failed to
replicate the methodology as it was
originally
proposed.
o
Some
critics suggest that the
theory has only limited
use, arguing that it tends
to be more valid
for
predicting in situations where
effort-performance and performance-reward
linkages are
clearly
perceived by the individual.
Reinforcement
Theory: In contrast
to Goal-Setting theory, which is a
cognitive approach,
Reinforcement
theory is a behaviorist approach. It
argues that reinforcement
conditions behavior.
Reinforcement
theorists see behavior as being
environmentally caused. Reinforcement
theory ignores
the
inner state of the individual
and concentrates solely on
what happens to a person
when he or she
takes
some action.
Concepts:
·
Behavior
is environmentally caused.
·
Behavior
can be modified (reinforced) by
providing (controlling)
consequences.
·
Reinforced
behavior tends to be
repeated
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