FORESTS AND BIODIVERSITY:The Ethics of Pollution Control

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Business Ethics MGT610

LESSON 26

FORESTS AND BIODIVERSITY

The number of plant and animal species inhabiting the planet is not accurately known. Nearly 2

million species have been identified, but estimates of the number yet to be described range

from 10 million to 30 million (United Nations Environment Program, 1995). Ecosystems of all

kinds are under pressure worldwide. Coastal and lowland areas, wetlands, native grasslands,

and many types of forests and woodlands have been particularly affected or destroyed. While

forests decreased by about 5 per cent between 1980 and 1995, the rate of deforestation has been

declining slightly (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2000b).

Additional threats confront fragile aquatic habitats, including coral reefs and freshwater

habitats, which face an array of assaults from dams to land-based pollution to destructive

fishing techniques.

Over the past 150 years, deforestation has contributed one third of the atmospheric build-up of

CO2, and it is a significant factor in the loss of species and critical ecosystem services

(Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2000). Since the beginnings of agriculture

10,000 years ago, by some estimates, almost half of the earth's forests have been converted to

farms, pastures and other uses, and only one fifth of original forest remains in large, relatively

natural ecosystems. Forested areas, including forest plantations as well as natural forests,

occupied about one fourth of the world's land area in 1995. Tropical rain forests are important

for the quantity and diversity of life they support. They cover only 7 per cent of the earth's land

area, but contain at least 50 per cent of terrestrial species (Food and Agriculture Organization

of the United Nations, 1999b). The influences of forests and biodiversity are global, reaching

far beyond national borders, in both space and time. Therefore, international cooperation is

essential in order to integrate environmental issues better into global, regional and national

decision-making processes.

Ozone depletion is also a serious concern. Caused by the release of CFCs into the atmosphere,

ozone depletion may lead to several hundred thousand new cases of skin cancer each year and

destroy many valuable food crops. Also, ocean plankton, on which the entire ocean's food chain

depends, may be severely damaged. Even though CFC production has been nearly halted, we

can expect the gasses already released to continue damaging the ozone for the next century.

Burning fossil fuels causes acid rain and global warming. Though not as devastating as global

warming, it nevertheless is harming many fish populations and trees, corroding bridges and

buildings, and contaminating drinking water. Airborne toxins and air quality in general are also

serious concerns for human health.

Airborne Toxics are less catastrophic but highly worrisome air pollution threats; 2.4 billion

pounds of airborne toxic substances released annually into the nation's atmosphere, including

phosgene, a nerve gas used in warfare, and methyl iso-cyanate.

Water pollution is likewise a serious problem. About 40% of the world's surface water is too

polluted to fish or swim in. Pollution comes from agriculture, mines, oil wells, human wastes,

manufacturing, detergents, and the food industry, among other sources. Today, almost 1 billion

people lack access to safe water and the world's per capita supplies of water are shrinking.

The pollution of the land by toxic substances also causes increased mortality and illness.

Hazardous or toxic substances are those that can cause an increase in mortality rates or

Business Ethics MGT610

irreversible or incapacitating illness, or those that have other seriously adverse health or

environmental effects. Over 58,000 different chemical compounds are currently being used in

the U.S., and the number is increasing each year. How many of these chemicals affect humans,

no one really knows. The sheer volume of solid waste is staggering: each U.S. resident

produces about seven pounds of garbage per day. Though this quantity is massive, it is not even

close to the quantity of industrial waste. The EPA estimates that about 15 million tons of toxic

waste is produced in the U.S. each year. This does not include nuclear wastes, which, because

they are so concentrated and persistent, present special problems for storage and disposal. Each

nuclear reactor produces 265 pounds of plutonium waste a year, a substance so toxic that only

twenty pounds would be sufficient to cause lung cancer in everyone on Earth. So far, no one

really knows how to dispose of this and similar wastes safely and securely.

As if pollution was not serious enough, we also must consider the depletion of species, habitats,

and natural resources. The world loses about 1% of its rain forests each year, and between 15%

and 20% of species had become extinct by 2000. Our consumption of fossil fuels has recently

been rising at exponential rates, but this cannot continue much longer because we are coming

close to the depletion point of fossil fuels. Minerals are also being depleted, so we can expect

them gradually to become more scare and expensive. This scarcity will have a serious impact

on the world economy.

The Ethics of Pollution Control

Businesses have been ignoring their impact on the natural environment for centuries, largely

because the economic costs and harmful effects of this impact have been unclear. Businesses

have treated air and water as free goods that no one owns. Since the carrying capacity of both is

so large, each individual firm sees its own contribution to pollution as negligible. Combined,

however, the effects are enormous. The harm comes not only from the direct activity of

businesses. Pollution also occurs as a result of consumer use of manufactured items. The

problems of pollution have a variety of origins, and will require a similarly varied set of

solutions. The rest of this chapter concentrates on a single range of problems, the ethical issues

raised by pollution from commercial and industrial enterprises.

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