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Introduction to Psychology PSY101

Lesson 8

RESEARCH METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY (I)

Scientific method in psychology

The scientific method is an approach that practitioners of psychology are interested in for

assessing, measuring, and predicting behavior. It is the process of appropriately framing and

properly answering questions. It is used by psychologists and those engaged in other scientific

disciplines, to come to an understanding about the world.

Scientific Nature of Psychology

Psychology is a science

Science: An approach using the scientific method for the observation, description,

understanding, and prediction of any phenomenon.

Scientific method: The procedure employing a systematic, pre defined, series of steps for

attaining optimal efficiency, accuracy, and objectivity in investigating the problem of interest

Systematic: it follows a specified system, an organized ways of collecting and tabulating

information.

Pre defined series of steps: certain steps following a specific sequence that is not to be

altered; disruption of the sequence will ruin the essence of the approach

Objectivity: It is unbiased; the researcher's likes and dislikes do not interfere with the study or

its findings

Identifying a research problem

Steps of Scientific Method

Review of related literature

1. Identifying the research problem

The most important step while

conducting research is identify and specify

Formulation of a hypothesis

the area of interest in which one is going to

conduct a research. The research problem can

be identified in many ways, including personal Designing &conducting the research

interest, brainstorming, scientific developments,

knowledge etc.

Analysis of data

2. Review of the related literature

Searching the research findings in relation with the

research one is going to conduct, in order to see how

Drawing conclusions

others approached the same or similar issues. Also, it can

give some idea as to what would be the probable outcome of

one's research.

3. Formulation of hypotheses

A hypothesis is a speculative statement about the relationship between two or more variables. By reviewing

the related literature, one is able to formulate the hypotheses pertaining to the variables of interest.

Reviewing the related research articles helps one formulate various hypotheses.

4. Designing and conducting the research

After reviewing the related literature and making hypotheses, the research is conducted by using different

strategies such as Questionnaires, mail interviews, telephonic interviews, face to face interviews etc. A

variety of research designs is available to the researchers, who can choose the one that best suits their study.

5. Analysis of data

After collecting information, the data will be tabulated with the help of statistical methods and computation

in order to see whether the finding prove or disprove the hypotheses.

6. Drawing conclusions

Conclusions are drawn after the statistical analysis of data. On the basis of this, a decision is made about the

rejection or acceptance of the hypothesis.

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Introduction to Psychology PSY101

Identifying a Research Problem

Research problems can be identified in a number of ways:

Perrsonalliintterrestt& obserrvattiion

Pe sona n e es & obse va on

Brraiinsttorrmiing

B a ns o m ng

Research Methods in

Reviiew offRellatted Liitterratturre

Rev ew o Re a ed L e a u e

Psychology

TechnollogiicallAdvancementt

Techno og ca Advancemen

Requesttffrrom Concerrned quarrtterrs

Reques om Conce ned qua e s

Non-manipulative/

Manipulative/

Descriptive

experimental

Methods

Non-manipulative/descriptive Methods

The methods in which the phenomenon of interest is studied the way it exists in nature. The researcher

does not interfere with the events, and acts as a passive recorder.

Manipulative/Experimental Methods

The methods that is responsible for the scientific nature of psychology. In these methods the researcher

exercises control over the variables and events. He may introduce variables of interest, or may withhold

them. These methods are used for determining cause and effect relationships.

Descriptive Research Methods

Obserrvattion

Obse v a ion

a) Observation

Corrrelational

Co relational

· Systematic observation is

Researrch

Resea ch

used; one of the methods

most frequently employed by

Surrveys

Su veys

anthropologists, sociologists and

Unobttrusive

Unob rusive

ethnologists.

Metthods

Me hods

· Phenomenon of interest is observed,

studied, and the observations are recorded.

Case Sttudies

Case S udies

· The recorded observations are analyzed.

Focus grroups,

Focus g oups,

· Conclusions are drawn on the basis of analysis.

Metta

Me a

anallysis

ana ysis

Types of observation

1. Observation without Intervention

2. Observation with Intervention

Observation without Intervention

1. Naturalistic Observation

Type of observation in which the phenomenon of interest is studied/observed in the natural setting without

any interference by the observer; The observer may make narrative records, take field notes, use audio or

video equipment, or may use a combination of some or all strategies.

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Introduction to Psychology PSY101

Observation with Intervention

The observer intervenes, and manipulates the situation, events and/or variables in order to:

· Create a situation which does not occur frequently

· Test the impact of variables on behavior

· Gain access to a situation that is otherwise not accessible or open to observation

Types of "Observation with Intervention"

1. Participant Observation

2. Structured Observation

3. Field experiments

1. Participant Observation

The observer becomes a part of the situation and plays an active and significant role in the

situation, event, or context under study. It can be of two types:

· Disguised Participant Observation

· Undisguised Participant Observation

2. Structured Observation

· Employed when the researcher intends to study a situation, which occurs infrequently or is

inaccessible otherwise.

· The observer may "create" a situation or initiate it.

· The control exercised by the observer is less than that in many other techniques.

· Mostly employed by clinical and developmental psychologists.

3. Field Experiments

· Experiments in the natural setting; the degree of control is far less than that in laboratory

experiments.

· One or more independent variables are manipulated in the natural setting in order to see their

impact on behavior.

· Confederate: the researcher is assisted by one or more confederates who behave in a pre-

planned manner so as to initiate an experimental condition.

b) Correlation Research

A method used for identifying predictive relationships among naturally occurring variables

Correlation

Can be said to exist when two different measures of the same individuals, objects, or events vary

together e.g. Relationship between I.Q. score & academic achievement or entry test marks & academic

achievement. Correlation is a statistical concept.

Nature of Correlation

Positive Correlation

Negative Correlation

Zero Correlation

Measures in Correlation Research

Questionnaires: can be used in- person, can be mailed, or used via Internet.

Interviews: can be personal and face-to-face, or telephonic.

Official Record: Official statistics, raw data, crime records etc.

Remember!!! Correlation is not causation

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Introduction to Psychology PSY101

C. Surveys

Most frequently used method for obtaining information quickly and evaluating people's interest,

liking, disliking and opinions without indulging in long- term procedures and techniques. It is also

easily used because it is a cheap method and information is gathered without much difficulty.

Surveys consist of presenting a series of questions or statements to the participants, and asking

them to respond.

Surveys are used when quick information is required in limited time e.g. opinion polls, product

preference.

Also useful when information is required from a large number of people e.g. population census

More suitable when the goal of the study is to find out about public opinion, attitudes,

preferences, likes and dislikes etc

Sources of data/information in Surveys

Questionnaires: in person, mailed, internet

Interviews: personal, telephonic

Newspaper Surveys

Steps involve in conducting the research: There are mainly five steps, which are essential while

conducting surveys i.e.,

Conceiving the problem: The purpose of the study must be carefully thought out and precisely

defined. How is the information to be used? From whom it is obtained? What kind of information

to be gathered etc.

Designing the instrument: There are numerous ways by which information can be gathered form

ii.

the general public such as mailed questionnaires, telephonic interviews, through internet etc. It

must be carefully thought that which procedure is most effective in obtaining the needed

information.

iii.

Sampling the population: The problem of obtaining a representative sample of the population is

one of the most difficult as well as significant in the field of measuring popular reactions. The

sample to be studied must be drawn in such a manner the each individual has an equal chance of

being selected, and that the drawing of one does not influence the chances of any other being

drawn. With this procedure, each age, sex, income, religious and ethnic group in the population will

be proportionately represented in the sample. Off course there are a number of ways of properly

drawing a sample.

iv.

Conducting interviews: Even when the questions are carefully worded and carefully designed, a

poor interviewer can bias the results. Experiments have shown that females are the best

interviewers: at least 21 years of age, who like people, who are unbiased, who are good listeners,

who have some college education, and who are fairly familiar with the section they are working in.

Interpreting the results: Even when all the findings are carried out properly, there is always a

chance of misinterpreting the results. Errors in questionnaires, statistical methods, and

investigator's own subjectivity can easily bias the results

d. Unobtrusive Measures of Behavior

Indirect ways of data collection

The person/s who are the focus of interest may not be present at the time of investigation

May be used for supplementing information collected through observation

May be used as a replacement of observation

In situations where direct observation is not possible

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Introduction to Psychology PSY101

Unobtrusive measures of behavior include:

i. Archival data

ii. Physical Traces

Archival data

Already existing records, documents, different forms of literature, newspaper items, photographs,

movies, documentaries, biographies, autobiographies etc are used as evidence/ information e.g.

using newspaper records to study the rate of crime during the past 20 years. May be used to

supplement data gathered through other sources

ii.

Physical Traces

Remains, remnants, fragments, objects and products of past behavior are used as evidence; usually

employed to supplement data from other sources.

Physical traces can be of two types

Use traces

ii.

Products

Use traces

Cues to the use or nonuse of objects and items provide significant evidence e.g. wall chalking, graffiti on walls of

public places, milk cartons or tissue boxes in the garbage bags

Products

Study of products, tools, weapons, sculpture etc used less frequently than physical traces