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Sport
Psychology(psy407)
VU
Lesson
39
EXERCISE
PSYCHOLOGY
Documentation
of the psychological benefits of regular
exercise has led to the inclusion of
"lack of
exercise"
as a fourth factor for heart
disease that can be modified
or controlled by the individual. The
other
three
risk factors are smoking,
high blood pressure and
elevated cholesterol. Among
other things, regular
physical
exercise helps lower
cholesterol, decreases the percentage of
body fat, mediates the
effects of
diabetes,
reduces weight, and lowers
blood pressure.
Over
the next four lectures we
will be looking at exercise
psychology in great detail. Will be
discussing the
following
topics related to exercise
psychology:
a.
Psychological
benefits of exercise
b.
Theoretical
explanations for the relationship between
exercise and improved mental
health
c.
Exercise
adherence and
determinants
d.
Theories
of exercise behavior
e.
Fitness
as a moderator of life stress
f.
The
immune system, cancer, HIV
and exercise
g.
Social
physique anxiety
h.
Exercise
addiction
i.
Eating
disorders
Psychological
Benefits of Exercise
A
large body of literature has
been amassed that supports
the position that regular
exercise leads to
improved
psychological affect. Improved
psychological affect is manifested in the
form of a reduction in
negative
affect (e.g., anxiety and depression)
and an increase in positive affect
(e.g., self-efficacy, vigor,
well-
being).
Exercise
in many cases is as effective as
psychotherapy and antidepressant
drugs in treating emotional
disorder.
These conclusions are supported by
several narrative reviews and
meta-analysis (Craft &
Landers,
1998),
Hale, Koch and Raglin,
2000; Van Landuyt, Ekkekakis,
Hall & Petruzzello,
2000).
Type
of exercises
Studies
cited to support the relationship between
exercise and psychological affect
benefits have used
both
acute
and chronic exercises. Acute
exercise refers to exercise
that is of short duration (e.g.,
thirty
minutes).Chronic
exercise refers to long-term
exercise (e.g., twelve months). Aerobics
exercise refers to
exercise
that is accomplished at an exercise
intensity that allows for the intake of
sufficient oxygen to
maintain
continuous exercise. Anaerobic exercise
is one in which the exerciser
does not get enough
oxygen
to
maintain continuous exercise. Anaerobic
exercise requires the athlete to
breathe hard following
exercise
in
order to replenish stored
energy. After a bout of
anaerobic exercise, the athlete
will need period to
time
to
"catch her breath." This is not
generally necessary with
aerobic exercises. Synchronized
swimming is an
example
of anaerobic exercise. Resistance
exercise usually involves the
use of weights or weight training
to
provide
resistance to the muscles, for
example, weight lifting.
Special
Populations
We
turn our attention now to
the beneficial psychological effects of
regular physical activity on
special
populations
of people. Special populations
can be divided into three
categories; clinical patients,
children
and
elderly, and disabled
individuals.
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Sport
Psychology(psy407)
VU
Clinical
Patients
The
benefits of regular physical activity
are even greater for
individuals suffering from
psychological
disorders
than for normal individuals. Using a
meta-analysis procedure, it is observed
that:
a)
Both
aerobic and nonaerobic exercises
were effective in reducing clinical
depression.
b)
More
depressed individuals benefit
more from exercise.
c)
Exercise
was as beneficial as psychotherapy and
drug therapy for reducing
depression.
d)
Long-term
exercise programs are more
effective than short-term programs for
reducing depression in
the
clinically ill.
In
addition to treating depression and
anxiety, exercise is also an effective treatment
for clinical patients
suffering
from schizophrenia. Results of the
exercise program showed psychological
improvements in the
form
of reduced auditory hallucinations and
better sleep patterns. In another investigation,
Martinsen,
Raglin,
Hofart, and Friis (1998)
demonstrated that patients suffering
from severe panic disorder could
safely
undergo
vigorous exercise without suffering panic
attacks.
Children
and Elderly
Research
has also shown the beneficial
effects of exercise on children
and older adults. Children's
exercise
behaviors
are greatly uninfluenced by
their parents' attitudes and
behaviors regarding exercise.
Factors that
can
influence a child's decision to be physically
active include parents' beliefs, the
children's perception of
their
own competence, and, to come
extent their goal
orientation.
Regarding
exercise and the elderly, research
shows that participation in
aerobic exercise selectively
preserves
some
cognitive functioning that
normally declines with
age.
So,
for the elderly, there is not
only the benefit of improved
fitness and improved
psychological affect
associated
with exercise, but also the
prospect of slowing the decline of some
cognitive functions. Exercise
in
the elderly is associated with the preservation of
certain aspects of memory
and spatial relationships
and
reduction
in confusion, tension, and anger.
Disabled
Individuals
Finally,
it is important to mention that the
beneficial psychological effects of
regular exercise extend to
physically
challenged individuals as well. For
example, wheelchair sport participants
have been observed to
enjoy
greater psychological benefits from
physical activity than
wheelchair nonparticipants in sport.
Moderating
Variables
In
addition, research suggests
that there are a number of
variables that may moderate
or facilitate the
effectiveness
of regular exercise on metal
well-being.
Time
of Day
Research
suggests that time of day is
not an important factor relative to
psychological benefits derived
from
exercise.
You get just as much
affective benefit from running in the
morning as from doing so at
midday or
in
the evening.
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Psychology(psy407)
VU
Mode
of Exercise
The
psychological benefits of acute aerobic
exercise appear to the same,
regardless of the mode of
exercise.
Cox
et al. (2000) observed no difference in
anxiety between treadmill and
stepper exercisers following
a
thirty-minute
bout of exercise.
Music
Research
suggests that listening to music
during exercise can increase
positive affect in the exerciser.
Attentional
Strategy
Relative
to attentional strategy, there is
evidence that a dissociative (external)
attentional strategy may
result
in
greater psychological benefits (Masters
& Ogles, 1998b). Runners
who are asked to listen to
their own
heart
rates during exercise
(internal focus) exhibit
greater emotional stress
than runner who
dissociate
during
exercise.
Social
Environment
The
social environment associated
with exercise has an effect
upon psychological benefits of
exercise.
Research
results show increased benefits
for the socially enriched
environment in the form of
revitalization
and
self-efficacy.
References
Cox,
H. Richard. (2002). Sport Psychology:
Concepts and Applications.
(Fifth Edition). New
York:
McGraw-Hill
Companies
Lavallec.
D., Kremer, J., Moran,
A., & Williams. M. (2004)
Sports Psychology: Contemporary Themes.
New
York:
Palgrave Macmillan
Publishers
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