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Sport Psychology(psy407)

Lesson 34

AGGRESSION AND VIOLENCE IN SPORT

The Catharsis Effect

The catharsis effect represents a release of pent-up frustration that makes one feel better. It is a purging of

the anger and frustration associated with not being able to accomplish a goal. Venting frustration upon a

punching bag or some other inanimate object may serve as a useful catharsis. Venting frustration upon

another human being, however, is unacceptable behavior that is likely to lead to more aggression.

Aggression is not cathartic in the sense that it leads to a reduction in the desire to aggress. Aggression leads

to an increase in aggression as tempers flare and as the behavior becomes learned.

Measurement of Aggression

A number of inventories have been developed to measure aggressiveness as a personality disposition or

trait. Two of these inventories are the Aggression Questionnaire (Buss & Perry, 1992) and the Aggression

Inventory (Gladue, 1991). Sport- specific inventories include the Athletic Aggression Inventory

(Bredemeier, 1978) and the Continuum of Injurious Acts (Bredemeier, 1985). The actual measurement of

aggression, however, is much more difficult. Because aggression is defined as the intent to harm another

human being, the measurement device must be able to capture this intent.

Fan Violence

Some of the worst examples of sports aggression and violence occur among the fans watching an athletic

contest. Every sports event is attended by individuals who may instigate fan violence. These are individuals

who score high in the personality disposition of anger and physical aggression. These individuals are

attracted to violence and fighting among fans, and exhibit a false belief about the willingness of other fans

to join in acts of violence.

Effects of Aggression On Performance

Conventional wisdom argues that acts of aggression on the part of an athlete will constitute a distraction

and result in a decrement in performance. Not only are aggressive acts on the part of an individual

distracting to the individual, but they are likely to be distracting to the team as a whole. Research shows, for

example, that the lower a team is in the standings, the more likely it will be to engage in aggression.

Situational Factors in a Sport Setting

Factors associated with the occurrence of aggression in sport-specific situations are as follows:

a. Environmental temperature

Archival data suggest that higher temperatures lead major league pitchers to become more aggressive in

pitching to batters.

b. Perception of victim's intent

If athletes perceive that an opponent's intent is to inflict harm, they are more likely to respond with

aggression against the opponent. This means that perception of an opponent's aggressive intentions may be

more salient than such things as defeat and competition.

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Sport Psychology(psy407)

c. Fear of retaliation

To some degree, the fear of retaliation on the part of the individual who is the target of aggression can

inhabit another player from initiating that aggression. A basketball player is a little less likely to elbow her

opponent in the ribs if she fears similar treatment from the opponent.

d. Structure of the game

Studies have shown that more aggressive penalties occur as the game score differential increases. When

teams are tied or the scores are close, aggression is at a minimum. Research has also shown that the lower

the team is in standings, the more its members engage in aggression.

e. Rivalry, familiarity, and frequency of play.

As players become more familiar with one another due to frequency of play, and as the rivalries become

more intense due to geographical location, aggression becomes more frequent.

Goal orientation

A respect for rules and officials declines as the ego orientation of the athlete increase. Conversely, high task

goal orientation is associated with higher level of sportspersonship.

Reducing Aggression in Sport

Aggression in sport can be curtailed, or at least minimized, if all concerned are interested in doing so. The

sad part is that some of the most influential people actually promote rather than discourage violence

because they believe it sells tickets.

Research shows that angry feelings and angry behavior, the precursor to hostile aggression can be modified

through anger awareness training and role playing. Athletes can learn to control their feelings of hostility

anger. Role playing is particularly effective in reducing an athlete's anger feelings and behavior.

Curtailing Aggression and Violence by Athletes

a. Young athletes must be provided with models of nonaggressive but effective assertive behavior.

b. Athletes who engage in aggressive acts must be severely penalized.

c. The penalty or punishment that an athlete receives for an act of aggression must be of greater punitive value

than the potential reinforcement received for committing the act.

d. In addition to receiving punishment for acts of aggression, athletes should receive rewards and praise for

showing restraint and patience in emotionally charged situations.

Curtailing Aggression and Violence by Fans

Potential troublemakers should be closely supervised. Fans with a history of violence and fighting should be

identified and denied admission.

b. The sale, distribution, and use of alcoholic beverages at sporting event should be limited and controlled.

c. Athletic events should be promoted and encouraged as family affairs.

d. The media can promote responsible behavior on the part of the fans by not glamorizing acts of aggression.

e. As with athletes and coaches, fan aggression must be swiftly and severely punished.

References

Cox, H. Richard. (2002). Sport Psychology: Concepts and Applications. (Fifth Edition). New York:

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McGraw-Hill Companies

Lavallec. D., Kremer, J., Moran, A., & Williams. M. (2004) Sports Psychology: Contemporary Themes. New

York: Palgrave Macmillan Publishers

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