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Sport Psychology (PSY407)

Lesson 03

SELECTING SELF-TALK STATEMENTS

For self-talk to be effective, three points should be kept in mind when selecting self-talk statements. It

must be (a) brief and phonetically simple (b) logically associated with the skill involved (c) compatible

with the sequential timing of the task being performed. If the statement is too long and vague it might

not be as effective. For example, when hitting a proper cover drive in cricket, proper front foot

placement and timing of the stroke are necessary. Key words used for self-talk could be "foot" and

"hit".

Specific Uses of Self-Talk

Zinsser in 2001 identified specific uses of self-talk. All of the recommended uses relate directly to or

indirectly to the enhancement of self-efficacy

According to Zinsser, self-talk is effective in:

1. Building and developing self-efficacy

Self-talk is effective in stimulating thoughts and feelings that lead to the belief that the person is

competent and able to perform the tasks effectively and efficiently

2. Skill accusation

Learning a new skill requires persistence, effort and dedication. Self-talk can be effective in helping the

athlete to continue to work hard in order to achieve a worthwhile goal. In becoming proficient in a new

skill, the athlete change bad habits and learns new good habits

3. Creating and changing mood

Effective use of mood words can either create a desired mood or change an undesirable one. Words are

powerful motivators because of the meaning they convey. In an effort to increase power needed to get

out of sprinter's block quickly , the athlete might say the word "go" or "explode" as she powers

forward.

4. Controlling effort

Athletes need to be able to sustain effort throughout long practices or competitions. Self-talk can

suggest to the athlete to increase effort when it is needed or to sustain effort when it is deemed

beneficial for performance learning or enhancement. During long practices, boredom can be a challenge

that must be overcome. Self-talk words and phrases such as `pick it up', `stay with me' or `pace' can be

effective in controlling effort.

5. Focusing attention of concentration

As with maintaining effort, it is often necessary to remind yourself to stay focused or to concentrate on

a task at hand. Athletes often get tired, and when this happens, their concentration can easily wander, if

the mind wanders when a coach is teaching an important concept related to the athlete's role on the

team, it is imperative that he heightens his concentration. Words or phrases such as `focus', `stay with it'

or `now' can help the athlete stay focused.

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Sport Psychology (PSY407)

Constructing Self-Affirmation Statements

Feelings of confidence, efficacy and personal control will be enhanced if sport psychologists assist athletes in

constructing affirmation statements that can be used during competition or during preparation for competition.

These are statements that affirm to the athlete that she posses the abilities, positive attitude, and beliefs

necessary for successful performance. These self-affirmation statements must be both believable and vivid.

These statements must be prepared before hand and not left for the athlete to come up with one when they are

needed.

Psychological Momentum in Sport

Athletes report a feeling of increased confidence during periods of perceived psychological momentum. It is

better described as a boulder rolling down a mountain, gaining seed and momentum as is moves downwards.

Psychological momentum is a phenomenon that has been documented in the literature relative to tennis,

basketball shooting, volleyball and ice hockey.

As defined by Taylor and Demick (1994), psychological momentum is "a positive or negative change in

cognition, affect, psychology, and behavior caused by an event or a series of events that will result in a

commensurate shift in performance and competitive outcome". Negative momentum may be characterized as a

condition necessary to precipitate positive momentum on part of the opposition. Examples of precipitating

events in tennis include a dramatic shot, or winning a game after a long deuce.

Model of Psychological Momentum

Three different models to explain psychological momentum phenomena have been proposed by researchers.

These three models are t he antecedents-Consequences model, multidimensional model and the projected

performance model. Each model is briefly explained ahead.

Antecedents-Consequences Model

In this model a situational antecedent event such as a dink in basketball or an ace serve in tennis precipitates the

perception of psychological momentum. Psychological momentum results in feelings of goal progression, self-

confidence, motivation, and energy.

Multidimensional Model

In the multidimensional model, psychological momentum is defined as being either positive or negative. The

key element in the model is precipitating event, which leads to a momentum chain. The momentum chain

includes a simultaneous change in cognition, affect, and psychological arousal, followed by a change in behavior,

a change in performance and so a change in immediate outcome.

Projected Performance Model

Positive and negative psychological momentums are only labels used to describe performance, and are result of

extremely good or bad performance. Large positive fluctuations in performance above the mean performance

zone are labeled positive psychological momentum while large negative fluctuations below the mean are labeled

negative psychological momentum. In the course of an athletic contest, teams and players cycle through phase

of good and bad performance. These cycles are often labeled positive and negative momentum but there is no

cause and effect relationship between the labels and actual performance.

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Sport Psychology (PSY407)

Psychological Momentum: Fact or Fiction?

Sufficient evidence exists that psychological momentum is real and that it is associated with changes in

athletic performance. Authors have concluded that their research supported the antecedent

consequence model and the multidimensional model of psychological momentum, but not the

projected performance model. Of related interest is the finding by Eisler that team cohesion and

psychological momentum are related. Teams that enjoy high levels of task-related team cohesion are

more likely to experience psychological momentum during competition than less cohesive teams.

Gender and Self-Confidence

Ellen Lenney (1977) has done a lot of work about women and self-confidence. Lenney argues that

women and girls suffer from reduced levels of self-confidence when one or more of three situational

variables are present. If these situational variables are not present, then girls and women should enjoy

self-confidence equal to that of men or boys. Theses three situational variables relate to (a) the nature of

the task, (b) ambiguity of available information, and (c) social comparison cues.

Nature of the task

It seems clear that women respond to some tasks with a great deal of confidence, but to other with little

confidence. For example, a woman might be expected to respond with a low level of confidence to a

task that she considered inappropriate to her gender role. The kinds of tasks females considered to be

gender-role inappropriate would probably vary from individual to individual. Body-building was once

considered to be gender inappropriate for women.

Ambiguity of available information

Self-confidence in females depends on the availability of clear and unambiguous information. Females

provided with clear feedback regarding their performance with will exhibit as much self-confidence as

men. However if the feedback is unclear and ambiguous, women tend to have lower opinions of their

abilities and to respond with lower levels of self-confidence than men. For example, women might be

more likely to show a lack of confidence if they were asked to hit a volley in tennis without being told

what was good or bad.

Social comparison cues

When girls and women work alone or in situations not involving social comparisons, they are likely to

respond with self-confidence levels equal to those of men or boys. This is where cooperation rather

than competition is emphasized. When placed in situation where performance is compared with that of

others in a social context, girls and women are expected to respond with lower levels of self-confidence

than those of boys and men in a similar situation.

The result of a meta-analysis conducted, supported Lenny's hypothesis that females will show lower

self-confidence than male when performing male-appropriate tasks. As long as the task was not female-

inappropriate, however, the analysis did not support Lenny's contention that females will be less

confident than males in competitive (social comparison) situations. While research shows that females

do not lack self-confidence in all situations, strategies to increase self-confidence in women may be

beneficial.

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Sport Psychology (PSY407)

Strategies to Increase Self-Confidence in Women

Some of the proposed strategies to increase self-confidence in women are:

Ensure success through participatory modeling.

Avoid gender-inappropriate activities.

Avoid ambiguity through effective communication.

Use effective modeling of correct performance.

Decrease competitive situations during learning.

References

Cox, H. Richard. (2002). Sport Psychology: Concepts and Applications. (Fifth Edition). New York:

McGraw-Hill Companies

Lavallec. D., Kremer, J., Moran, A., & Williams. M. (2004) Sports Psychology: Contemporary Themes.

New York: Palgrave Macmillan Publishers