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Sport Psychology(psy407)

Lesson 26

IMAGERY

This lecture is a continuation of the topic we started in the last lecture, imagery. In this lecture we will be

discussing theories of why imagery works imagery perspective and sensory mode, and measurement of

imagery.

Theories Of Why Imagery Works

While a great deal of research has been published relative to the effectiveness of imagery and mental

practice in sport, sport psychologists know very little about the reasons they are effective or how the work.

Why should mentally practicing or imaging a physical task result in improved learning and performance? A

number of possible explanations to this basic question have been proposed (Hecker & Kaczor, 1988;

Janssen & Sheikh, 1994; Murphy & Jowdy, 1992). We will be discussing three theoretical explanations, they

are:

1. Psychoneuromuscular Theory

2. Symbolic Learning Theory

3. Attention and Arousal Set Theory

Psychoneuromuscular Theory

Psychoneuromuscular theory posits that imagery results in subliminal neuromuscular patterns that are

identical to the patterns used during actual movement. Even though the imagined event does not result in

an overt movement of the musculature, subliminal efferent commands are sent from the brain to the

muscles. In a sense, the neuromuscular system is given the opportunity to "practice" a movement pattern

without really moving a muscle.

Psychoneuromuscular theory is the most plausible explanation for why imagery facilitates physical

performance and learning.

Symbolic Learning Theory

Symbolic learning theory differs from Psychoneuromuscular theory. The symbolic learning theory states

that mental practice and imagery work because the individual literally plans her actions in advance. Motors

sequence, task goals, and alternative solutions are considered cognitively before a physical response is

required.

Attention and Arousal Set Theory

Attention and arousal set theory combines the cognitive aspects of symbolic learning theory with the

physiological aspects of psychoneuromuscular theory. According to this theory, imagery serves to improve

performance in two ways. From a physiological perspective, imagery may help the athlete to adjust his

arousal level for optimal performance. From a cognitive perspective, imagery may help the athlete to

selectively attend to the task at hand. If the athlete is attending to a task-relevant image, she is less likely to

be distracted by irrelevant stimuli.

Imagery Perspective and Sensory Mode

There are two factors to take into consideration when discussing the use of imagery by athletes. The first is

the perspective from which imagery is practiced, and the second is the sensory mode from which imagery is

experienced.

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Sport Psychology(psy407)

Imagery Perspective

There exist two perspectives from which imagery can be applied. The two imagery perspectives are internal

and external. In internal imagery, the athlete imagines herself executing a sport task from within her own

body. Shut your eyes and imagine for a moment that you have a basketball in your hand and you are

preparing to shoot a free throw. If your perspective at this moment is from within your body looking

toward the basket, this is an example of internal imagery.

Conversely, external imagery is very unnatural to us. In external imagery we imagine ourself to be outside of

our body watching from a distance. Let's take the basketball free throw example again. Shut your eyes and

imagine you are going to shoot a free throw. This time imagine that you are outside your body, watching

yourself from a distance. Its is an example of external imagery. External imagery provides an excellent

perspective from which to observe skill technique and form. We might assume that internal imagery is

superior to external imagery because it is more natural to us.

Sensory Mode

Kinesthetic sensitivity informs the brain about movements in the joints and in the muscles.

Both internal and external imagery utilize all five of the body's senses, although different sport skills may

benefit more from one perspective than from another (Hardy & Callow, 199). It has generally been

believed, however, that internal imagery utilizes kinesthetic sensitivity to a greater degree than external

imagery.

Measurement of Imagery

A plethora of questionnaires have been developed and proposed for the measurement of various aspects of

imagery. An incomplete list of questionnaires on imagery is provided on the next page.

Lists of imagery tests

Gordon's Test Of Imagery Control (GTIC)

Richardson (1969)

Group Test Of Mental Rotations (GMART)

Vandenburg & Kruse (1978)

Individual Differences Questionnaire (IDQ)

Paivio (1971)

Preferred Imagic Cognitive Style (PICS)

Isaacs (1982)

Imagery Use Questionnaire (IUQ)

Hall, Rodgers & Barr (1990)

Imagery Use Questionnaire For Soccer (IUQ-SP)

Salmon, Hall & Haslam (1994)

Sport Imagery Questionnaire (SIQ)

Hall,

Mack,

Paivio

Hausenblas (1998)

Exercise Imagery Questionnaire-Aerobic Version (EIQ-AV)

Hausenblas, Hall, Rodgers and

Munroe (1999)

Questionnaire On Mental Imagery (QMI)

Betts (1909)

Shortened Form Of Questionnaire On Mental Imagery (SQMI)

Sheehan (1967)

Vividness Of Visual Imagery Questionnaire (VVIQ)

Marks (1973)

Movement Imagery Questionnaire (MIQ)

Hall & Pongrac (1983)

Vividness Of Movement Imagery Questionnaire (VMIQ)

Issac, Mark & Russell (1986)

Revised Movement Imagery Questionnaire (MIQ-R)

Hall & martin (1997)

References

Cox, H. Richard. (2002). Sport Psychology: Concepts and Applications. (Fifth Edition). New York: McGraw-

Hill Companies

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Sport Psychology(psy407)

Lavallec. D., Kremer, J., Moran, A., & Williams. M. (2004) Sports Psychology: Contemporary Themes. New

York: Palgrave Macmillan Publishers