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International Relations-PSC 201

LESSON 07

NATIONAL INTEREST (CONTINUED FROM LECTURE 6)

Variations in National Interest

There are different types of national interest. Some of the salient ones are described below:

Primary Interests: preservation of physical, political and cultural identity of the nation-state.

Secondary Interests: protection of citizens abroad and ensuring diplomatic immunity of foreign missions.

Permanent Interests: long-term interests of strategic, ideological or economic nature which do not change

easily, with changes in domestic politics, for example

Variable Interests: these are short-term interests varying with cross-currents of personalities, public opinion,

partisan politics, sectional interests etc.

General Interests: involve a large number of nations, such as economic interests or diplomatic norms.

Specific Interests: location and issue specific interests emerging from more general interests (bilateral terms of

trade for example).

Identical Interests: interests held in common by different states (climate protection concerns)

Complementary Interests: though not identical, these interests can serve as basis for agreement on specific

issues (US-Pakistan security cooperation).

Conflicting Interests: bring countries at odds with each other. Yet these interests can also undergo change due

to varying internal circumstances and a changing external scenario.

Means to Promote National Interests

Coercive Means: these can be internal so that they don't infringe directly on other sovereign nations

(embargos, boycotts, severing diplomatic relations) or they can be external and are a prima facie act of war

(seizure of property of offending state, suspension of treaties), if the other state responds with escalating

moves, it leads to an outbreak of war.

Alliances: based on complementary or identical interests and strengthened by ideology, alliances can promote

national interest.

Diplomatic Negotiations: common interests are most effectively perpetuated by means of diplomacy.

Diplomacy is also useful in negotiating conflicting national interests without resorting to coercive means.

National vs. Global Interests

Given the complexities of international politics, Morgenthau for e.g. opposes state action based on universal

principles, instead he advocates a pragmatic approach of acting based on national interests.

Yet, issues of global concern like growing inequalities and environmental problems require world leaders to

think beyond the narrow ambit of national interests. The world is also becoming increasing interconnected

due to which national interests often exert an influence on global interests and global interests to some

degree also compel national interests.

Relevant Vocabulary

Coercive elements: potentially destructive elements which can lead to escalating tensions or cause outbreak of

violence

Scenario: existing situation

Partisan: division into factions or different parties

Perpetuated: affected or enabled

Ideological: based on an ideology or belief system

Ambit: realm, domain or field

Inequalities: the gap between the haves and the have nots

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International Relations-PSC 201

Compel:

oblige

influence

Suggested Reading:

Students are advised to read the following chapters to develop a better understanding of the various

principals highlighted in this hand-out:

Chapter 3 in `"A Study of International Relations" by Dr. Sultan Khan.

Internet Resources

In addition to reading from the textbook, please visit the following web-pages for this lecture, which

provide useful and interesting information:

Promoting the National Interest

www.foreignaffairs.org/20000101faessay5/condoleezza-rice/

campaign-2000-promoting-the-national-

interest.html

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International Relations-PSC 201

LESSON 08

BALANCE OF POWER (BOP)

Definitions of BoP

The equilibrium of power among members of the family of nations as will prevent any one of them from

becoming sufficiently strong to enforce its will upon the others.

The power equation between states is based on an assessment of each state's relative power capabilities and

this assessment provides the basis for the conduct of relations between them.

BoP from a historical perspective

From 1648 (Peace of Westphalia) to 1789 (French Revolution) was a golden age of classical balance of

power, when the princes of Europe began accepting BoP as the supreme principle of foreign policy.

Evident use of BoP is also noted in the mid-17th cent., when it was directed against the France of Louis

XIV. Balance of power was the stated British objective for much of the 18th and 19th cent., and it

characterized the European international system, for example, from 18151914.

The Concert of Europe (from 1815 to1870) provides another good example of major European states

striving to achieve balance power. The increasing the power of Germany began seeing bipolar set of

alliances form, leading to the World Wars.

After World War I, the balance of power system was attacked by proponents of cooperation and a

community of power. International relations were changed radically after World War II by the

predominance of two superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union, with major ideological

differences between them.

After the 1960s, with the emergence of China and the third world, a revived Europe and Japan, it reemerged

as a component of international relations. With the collapse of the USSR in 1991, the United States, as the

sole remaining superpower, has been dominant militarily and, to a lesser degree, economically.

Some BoP Techniques

Alliances (NATO) and Counter-Alliances (WARSAW Pact)

Armament (arms race in the Subcontinent spurred by need to maintain BoP) and

Disarmament (Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty)

Intervention (Soviets and US incursion into Afghanistan) and Non-Intervention (France and

Britain did not interfere in Spanish civil war of 1936)

Kinds of BoP

Simple or Complex: Simple BoP requires parity between powers but in more complex situations competing

powers can achieve balance from additional sources.

General or Particular: General BoP lacks a preponderant power whereas particular BoP can imply regional

preponderance.

Subjective or Objective: BoP based on appearances is subjective and fragile whereas that based on actual

capabilities is objective and more stable.

Fortuitous or Contrived: Fortuitous BoP is not based on particular policies whereas contrived BoP is based on

conscious policies of either or both sides.

Relevant Vocabulary

Assessment: estimation based on analysis

Fortuitous: unexpected or chance

Capability: capacity or the ability to achieve or do something

Preponderance: prevalence or hold

Fragile: subject to change, unstable

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International Relations-PSC 201

Intervention: intrusion or interference

Alliance: grouping or association to serve a specific purpose

Suggested Readings

Students are advised to read the following chapters to develop a better understanding of the various

principals highlighted in this hand-out:

Chapter 5 in `"A Study of International Relations" by Dr. Sultan Khan.

Internet Resources

In addition to reading from the textbook, please visit the following web-pages for this lecture, which

provide useful and interesting information:

Balance of Power

http://www.bartleby.com/65/ba/balancPow.html